📚 Subject Specific Vocabulary in AQA International AS Physics | AQA国际AS物理学科专用词汇
Success in AQA International AS Physics depends not only on understanding concepts and performing calculations, but also on using precise scientific language. Examiners consistently report that students lose marks because they confuse terms such as 'velocity' and 'speed', or 'accuracy' and 'precision'. This guide presents the essential subject-specific vocabulary you need for the AQA International AS examinations, organised by topic, with clear definitions and common pitfalls explained.
在AQA国际AS物理考试中取得好成绩，不仅取决于理解概念和进行计算，还取决于能否使用精确的科学语言。考官们一致反映，学生因为混淆"速度"与"速率"、"准确度"与"精密度"等术语而失分。本指南按主题整理了AQA国际AS考试所需的必备学科词汇，提供清晰的定义并解释常见的易错点。
1. Physical Quantities and Units | 物理量与单位
A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified by measurement. Every physical quantity consists of a numerical value and a unit. For example, the length of a rod is 2.50 m — the numerical value is 2.50 and the unit is metres.
物理量是材料或系统可通过测量进行量化的属性。每个物理量都由数值和单位组成。例如，一根杆的长度为2.50 m — 数值是2.50，单位是米。
Key vocabulary in this area:
这一领域的关键词汇：
- SI base units — the seven fundamental units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), mole (mol), candela (cd). In AS Physics you will use the first five.
- SI基本单位 — 七个基本单位：千克（kg）、米（m）、秒（s）、安培（A）、开尔文（K）、摩尔（mol）、坎德拉（cd）。在AS物理中你会用到前五个。
- Derived unit — a unit formed by combining base units, e.g. newton (N) = kg m s⁻².
- 导出单位 — 由基本单位组合而成的单位，例如牛顿（N）= kg m s⁻²。
- Homogeneity — an equation is homogeneous if all terms have the same base units. Homogeneity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for correctness.
- 量纲一致性 — 如果方程中所有项具有相同的基本单位，则该方程具有量纲一致性。量纲一致是方程正确的必要但不充分条件。
- Uncertainty — the range of values within which the true value is expected to lie; expressed as absolute, fractional or percentage uncertainty.
- 不确定度 — 真实值预期所在的数值范围；以绝对、分数或百分比不确定度表示。
Derived unit of force: N = kg × m × s⁻²
力的导出单位：N = kg × m × s⁻²
A common error is writing 'the unit of force is kg m/s²' without realising that newton is the special name for this derived unit. In exam answers, always give the unit in the form used by the mark scheme.
常见错误是将力的单位写作"kg m/s²"而没有意识到牛顿就是该导出单位的专用名称。在考试答案中，务必使用评分标准所采用的形式给出单位。
2. Scalars and Vectors | 标量与矢量
A scalar quantity has magnitude only, while a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. This distinction is fundamental throughout the AS syllabus and examiners test it explicitly.
标量只有大小，而矢量既有大小又有方向。这一区分贯穿整个AS教学大纲，考官会明确考查这一点。
Examples of scalars include:
标量的例子包括：
- Mass (kg) — a measure of the amount of matter
- 质量（kg）— 物体所含物质的量度
- Energy (J) — the capacity to do work
- 能量（J）— 做功的能力
- Speed (m s⁻¹) — the rate of change of distance
- 速率（m s⁻¹）— 距离的变化率
- Pressure (Pa) — normal force per unit area
- 压强（Pa）— 单位面积上的法向力
- Temperature (K) — measure of average kinetic energy of particles
- 温度（K）— 粒子平均动能的量度
Examples of vectors include:
矢量的例子包括：
- Displacement (m) — distance in a specified direction
- 位移（m）— 沿特定方向的距离
- Velocity (m s⁻¹) — rate of change of displacement
- 速度（m s⁻¹）— 位移的变化率
- Acceleration (m s⁻²) — rate of change of velocity
- 加速度（m s⁻²）— 速度的变化率
- Force (N) — an interaction that changes an object's motion
- 力（N）— 改变物体运动状态的相互作用
- Momentum (kg m s⁻¹) — mass × velocity
- 动量（kg m s⁻¹）— 质量 × 速度
It is crucial to understand that distance and displacement are not interchangeable terms. Distance is the total path length travelled, while displacement is the straight-line distance from start to finish in a stated direction. A runner completing one lap of a 400 m track has a distance of 400 m but zero displacement.
必须理解，距离和位移不可互换使用。距离是运动路径的总长度，而位移是从起点到终点的直线距离并指明方向。跑者在400 m跑道上跑完一圈，其距离为400 m，但位移为零。
3. Kinematics: Motion Vocabulary | 运动学：运动术语
Kinematics describes motion without considering its causes. The vocabulary here is precise and frequently tested through definitions and graph interpretation.
运动学描述运动而不考虑其成因。此处术语非常精确，常通过定义和图像解读进行考查。
Essential terms:
基本术语：
- Uniform velocity — constant velocity; equal displacements in equal time intervals
- 匀速速度 — 恒定的速度；相等时间间隔内有相等位移
- Instantaneous velocity — the velocity at a particular instant, found from the gradient of a displacement–time graph at that point
- 瞬时速度 — 某一特定时刻的速度，由位移–时间图像在该点的斜率求得
- Average velocity — total displacement divided by total time
- 平均速度 — 总位移除以总时间
- Acceleration due to gravity (g) — approximately 9.81 m s⁻² near Earth's surface
- 重力加速度（g） — 地球表面附近约为9.81 m s⁻²
- Free fall — motion under the influence of gravity only
- 自由落体 — 仅受重力影响的运动
- Terminal velocity — the constant velocity reached when the drag force equals the weight of a falling object
- 终端速度 — 当阻力等于下落物体重力时所达到的恒定速度
- Projectile — an object moving under gravity after being given an initial velocity; its trajectory is parabolic
- 抛体 — 获得初速度后在重力作用下运动的物体；其轨迹为抛物线
When describing motion graphs, note that the gradient of a displacement–time graph gives velocity, and the gradient of a velocity–time graph gives acceleration. The area under a velocity–time graph gives displacement.
在描述运动图像时，注意位移–时间图像的斜率给出速度，速度–时间图像的斜率给出加速度。速度–时间图像下的面积给出位移。
v = u + at s = ut + ½at² v² = u² + 2as
v = u + at s = ut + ½at² v² = u² + 2as
4. Forces and Newton's Laws | 力与牛顿定律
Forces are vector quantities measured in newtons. Understanding the precise meaning of terms such as weight, reaction, tension, friction and drag is essential for writing correct exam responses.
力是矢量，以牛顿为单位。理解重量、反作用力、张力、摩擦力和阻力等术语的精确含义，对于写出正确的考试答案至关重要。
Key definitions:
关键定义：
- Weight — acting on an object; W = mg. Weight is a vector directed towards the centre of the Earth.
- 重量 — 作用在物体上的重力；W = mg。重量是方向指向地心的矢量。
- Normal contact force — the perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it
- 法向接触力 — 表面对与其接触的物体施加的垂直力
- Tension — the pulling force transmitted through a string, rope or cable
- 张力 — 通过绳子、绳索或缆绳传递的拉力
- Friction — a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact
- 摩擦力 — 阻碍两个接触表面之间相对运动的力
- Drag — the resistive force experienced by an object moving through a fluid (air or liquid)
- 阻力（流体阻力） — 物体在流体（空气或液体）中运动时所受到的阻力
- Resultant force — the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on an object combined
- 合力 — 与作用在物体上所有力综合效果相同的单一力
- Moment — the turning effect of a force; moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
- 力矩 — 力的转动效应；力矩 = 力 × 到支点的垂直距离
- Centre of gravity — the point through which the entire weight of an object acts
- 重心 — 物体全部重力所通过的点
Newton's three laws are frequently tested with targeted vocabulary. Newton' ing that acceleration is proportional to resultant force and inversely proportional to mass. The third law states that when two objects interact, the forces exerted are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
牛顿三大定律经常结合特定词汇考查。牛顿第一定律指出，物体保持静止或匀速运动状态，除非受到合力作用。第二定律表示为F = ma，即加速度与合力成正比，与质量成反比。第三定律指出，当两个物体相互作用时，所施加的力大小相等、方向相反。
Note that Newton's third law forces act on different objects, whereas a force pair on the same object is a balanced force situation. Confusing these two situations is one of the most common errors in A-level Physics.
注意，牛顿第三定律中的力作用在不同物体上，而同一物体上的力对是平衡力的情况。混淆这两种情况是A-level物理中最常见的错误之一。
5. Work, Energy and Power | 功、能与功率
Energy is measured in joules. Several forms of energy appear in AS Physics, together with precise definitions of work and power.
能量以焦耳为单位。AS物理中出现多种形式的能量，以及对功和功率的精确定义。
Core vocabulary:
核心词汇：
- Work done — direction of the force; W = F s cos θ, where θ is the angle between force and displacement
- 做功 — 力与沿力的方向移动距离的乘积；W = F s cos θ，其中θ是力与位移之间的夹角
- Kinetic energy — the energy an object possesses due to its motion; Eₖ = ½mv²
- 动能 — 物体因运动而具有的能量；Eₖ = ½mv²
- Gravitational potential energy — the energy stored in an object due to its height in a gravitational field; Eₚ = mgh
- 重力势能 — 物体在重力场中因高度而储存的能量；Eₚ = mgh
- Principle of conservation of energy — energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to another
- 能量守恒原理 — 能量不能被创造或消灭，只能从一种形式转化为另一种形式
- Power — the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work; P = W/t = Fv
- 功率 — 能量转移的速率或做功的速率；P = W/t = Fv
- Efficiency — the ratio of useful output energy (or power) to total input energy (or power), often expressed as a percentage
- 效率 — 有用输出能量（或功率）与总输入能量（或功率）之比，通常以百分比表示
Eₖ = ½mv² Eₚ = mgh P = Fv
Eₖ = ½mv² Eₚ = mgh P = Fv
It is important to distinguish between 'work done by a force' and 'work done against a force'. For example, lifting a mass requires work against gravity, while friction does negative work on a sliding object.
必须区分"力对物体做功"与"物体克服力做功"。例如，举起重物需要克服重力做功，而摩擦力对滑动物体做负功。
6. Waves: Terminology | 波：术语
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. AS Physics requires fluency with a range of wave-related terms, both for descriptive answers and quantitative calculations.
波传递能量而不传递物质。AS物理要求熟练运用一系列与波相关的术语，既用于描述性答案，也用于定量计算。
Essential wave vocabulary:
波的必备词汇：
- Progressive wave — a wave that transfers energy from one point to another without transferring matter
- 前进波 — 从一点向另一点传递能量而不传递物质的波
- Wavelength (λ) — the distance between two consecutive points in phase on a wave, measured in metres
- 波长（λ） — 波上两个连续同相点之间的距离，单位为米
- Frequency (f) — the number of complete oscillations per second, measured in hertz (Hz)
- 频率（f） — 每秒完整振动的次数，单位为赫兹（Hz）
- Period (T) — the time for one complete oscillation; T = 1/f
- 周期（T） — 完成一次完整振动所需的时间；T = 1/f
- Amplitude — the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
- 振幅 — 偏离平衡位置的最大位移
- Phase difference — the fraction of a cycle between two waves, measured in degrees or radians
- 相位差 — 两个波之间相差的周期分数，以度或弧度为单位
- Coherence — waves have a constant phase difference and the same frequency
- 相干性 — 波具有恒定相位差和相同频率
- Superposition — when two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of individual displacements
- 叠加 — 当两个或多个波重叠时，合位移等于各分位移的矢量和
- Interference — the pattern produced by superposition of waves, consisting of constructive and destructive interference
- 干涉 — 波的叠加产生的图样，包括相长干涉和相消干涉
- Diffraction — the spreading of waves when they pass through a gap or around an obstacle
- 衍射 — 波通过狭缝或绕过障碍物时发生的展宽现象
- Refraction — the change in direction of a wave due to a change in speed when passing from one medium to another
- 折射 — 波从一种介质进入另一种介质时因速度变化而改变方向
- Polarisation — the restriction of vibrations of a transverse wave to one plane
- 偏振 — 横波振动被限制在一个平面内
Stationary wave — a wave formed by the superposition of two progressive waves of the same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions. Points of zero displacement are called nodes, and points of maximum displacement are antinodes.
驻波 — 由两列频率和振幅相同但传播方向相反的波的叠加形成的波。位移为零的点称为节点，位移最大的点称为波腹。
v = fλ
v = fλ
Note the distinction between transverse waves (vibrations perpendicular to energy transfer) and longitudinal waves (vibrations parallel to energy transfer, e.g. sound).
注意横波（振动方向垂直于能量传递方向）和纵波（振动方向平行于能量传递方向，如声波）之间的区别。
7. Electricity: Circuit Vocabulary | 电学：电路术语
Electric circuits require precise vocabulary for current, voltage, resistance and related concepts. Errors here are very common because everyday language uses these terms loosely.
电路部分需要精确掌握电流、电压、电阻及相关概念的术语。此处错误非常常见，因为日常用语中这些术语使用不严格。
Key terms:
关键术语：
- Electric current (I) — the rate of flow of charge; I = ΔQ/Δt, measured in amperes (A)
- 电流（I） — 电荷流动的速率；I = ΔQ/Δt，单位为安培（A）
- Potential difference (p.d.) (V) — the energy transferred per unit charge when charge flows between two points in a circuit; measured in volts
- 电势差（V） — 电荷在电路中两点之间流动时每单位电荷所转移的能量；单位为伏特
- Electromotive force (e.m.f.) (ε) — the energy transferred per unit charge by a source to the charge carriers; measured in volts
- 电动势（ε） — 电源向载流子每单位电荷所转移的能量；单位为伏特
- Resistance (R) — the ratio of potential difference to current; R = V/I, measured in ohms (Ω)
- 电阻（R） — 电势差与电流之比；R = V/I，单位为欧姆（Ω）
- Resistivity (ρ) — rial determining its resistance; R = ρL/A, where L is length and A is cross-sectional area
- 电阻率（ρ） — 决定材料电阻的特性；R = ρL/A，其中L为长度，A为横截面积
- Ohm's law — the current through an ohmic conductor is proportional to the potential difference across it, provided the physical conditions remain constant
- 欧姆定律 — 在物理条件保持恒定时，通过欧姆导体的电流与两端电势差成正比
- Diode — a component that allows current in one direction only
- 二极管 — 只允许电流沿一个方向流动的元件
- Thermistor — a component whose resistance decreases as temperature increases
- 热敏电阻 — 电阻随温度升高而降低的元件
- Light-dependent resistor (LDR) — a component whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases
- 光敏电阻（LDR） — 电阻随光照强度增加而降低的元件
V = IR P = IV = I²R = V²/R
V = IR P = IV = I²R = V²/R
Distinguish carefully between e.m.f. and p.d.: e.m.f. is the total energy supplied per coulomb by a source, while p.d. is the energy transferred per coulomb by a component. The e.m.f. of a source equals the p.d. across its terminals only when no current flows (open circuit).
仔细区分电动势和电势差：电动势是电源向每库仑电荷提供的总能量，而电势差是元件每库仑电荷所转移的能量。只有当没有电流流动（开路）时，电源的电动势才等于其端电压。
8. Matter and Materials | 物质与材料
The study of materials involves vocabulary describing how objects deform under forces and how materials respond to stress.
材料研究涉及描述物体在力作用下如何变形以及材料如何响应应力的词汇。
Essential definitions:
基本定义：
- Tensile force — a force that stretches an object
- 张力（拉伸力） — 使物体伸长的力
- Compressive force — a force that squeezes or shortens an object
- 压缩力 — 挤压或缩短物体的力
- Elastic deformation — deformation that is reversible; the object returns to its original shape when the load is removed
- 弹性形变 — 可逆的形变；撤去载荷后物体恢复原状
- Plastic deformation — permanent deformation; the object does not return to its original shape
- 塑性形变 — 永久形变；物体无法恢复原状
- Hooke's law — extension is proportional to applied force up to the limit of proportionality
- 胡克定律 — 在比例极限内，伸长量与施加的力成正比
- Elastic limit — the maximum force at which a material still shows elastic behaviour
- 弹性极限 — 材料仍表现出弹性行为时的最大力
- Yield point — the point at which a material begins to deform plastically without a significant increase in stress
- 屈服点 — 材料在不显著增加应力的情况下开始发生塑性形变的点
- Ultimate tensile strength — the maximum stress a material can withstand before fracture
- 极限抗拉强度 — 材料在断裂前能承受的最大应力
- Brittle — describes a material that fractures with little or no plastic deformation
- 脆性 — 描述材料在几乎没有塑性形变的情况下就断裂的性质
- Ductile — describes a material that can be drawn into wires undergoing significant plastic deformation
- 延展性 — 描述材料能够被拉成丝状并发生显著塑性形变的性质
Stress is defined as force per unit cross-sectional area (σ = F/A, unit Pa), and strain is defined as extension divided by original length (ε = ΔL/L, dimensionless). The Young modulus is stress divided by strain (E = σ/ε, unit Pa).
应力定义为单位横截面积上的力（σ = F/A，单位Pa），应变定义为伸长量与原始长度之比（ε = ΔL/L，无量纲）。杨氏模量是应力与应变之比（E = σ/ε，单位Pa）。
E = σ/ε = (F/A) / (ΔL/L)
E = σ/ε = (F/A) / (ΔL/L)
9. Measurements and Errors | 测量与误差
AQA International AS exams require precise use of vocabulary related to measurement quality. These terms are frequently examined in the required practicals and in data-analysis questions.
AQA国际AS考试要求精确使用与测量质量相关的词汇。这些术语经常在必做实验和数据分析题中考查。
Critical distinctions:
关键区分：
- Accuracy — how close a measured value is to the true value
- 准确度 — 测量值与真实值的接近程度
- Precision — how close repeated measurements are to each other (the spread of readings)
- 精密度 — 重复测量值之间的接近程度（读数的散布范围）
- Random error — error that causes readings to vary unpredictably around the true value; reduced by taking repeat readings and averaging
- 随机误差 — 导致读数围绕真实值不可预测地变化的误差；通过重复读数取平均来减小
- Systematic error — error that consistently shifts readings in one direction; cannot be reduced by averaging
- 系统误差 — 使读数始终朝一个方向偏移的误差；不能通过取平均来减小
- Parallax error — an error caused by reading a scale from a non-perpendicular viewpoint
- 视差误差 — 从非垂直视角读数刻度尺造成的误差
- Zero error — a systematic error where the instrument does not read zero when it should
- 零误差 — 仪器在应读为零时未读为零的系统误差
- Absolute uncertainty — the actual uncertainty in a measurement, with the same unit as the measurement
- 绝对不确定度 — 测量中实际的不确定度，单位与测量值相同
- Fractional/percentage uncertainty — the absolute uncertainty divided by the measured value (×100% for percentage)
- 分数/百分比不确定度 — 绝对不确定度除以测量值（百分比需×100%）
- Resolution — the smallest change in a quantity that an instrument can detect
- 分辨力 — 仪器能检测到的最小物理量变化
mm. The absolute uncertainty for a single reading with such a ruler is typically ±0.5 mm.
例如，具有毫米刻度的直尺分辨力为1 mm。使用此类直尺进行单次读数的绝对不确定度通常为±0.5 mm。
10. Mechanics: Momentum and Circular Motion | 力学：动量与圆周运动
Momentum is a vector quantity that plays a central role in analysing collisions and explosions. In AS Physics, vocabulary around momentum must be used with care.
动量是矢量，在分析碰撞和爆炸中起核心作用。在AS物理中，必须谨慎使用与动量相关的词汇。
Key terms:
关键术语：
- Linear momentum (p) — the product of mass and velocity; p = mv, unit kg m s⁻¹
- 线动量（p） — 质量与速度的乘积；p = mv，单位kg m s⁻¹
- Principle of conservation of momentum — total momentum before an interaction equals total momentum after, provided no external resultant force acts
- 动量守恒原理 — 在没有外合力作用的前提下，相互作用前后的总动量相等
- Elastic collision — a collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved
- 弹性碰撞 — 动能和动量都守恒的碰撞
- Inelastic collision — a collision in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not (some is transferred to other forms)
- 非弹性碰撞 — 动量守恒但动能不守恒（部分动能转化为其他形式）的碰撞
- Impulse — the product of force and time; impulse = F t = change in momentum
- 冲量 — 力与时间的乘积；冲量 = F t = 动量变化量
Impulse = F t = Δp
冲量 = F t = Δp
When a mass m moves at constant speed v along a circular path of radius r, it experiences centripetal acceleration directed towards the centre. The required centripetal force /r. These terms are frequently misunderstood: centripetal force is not a new kind of force — it is the resultant force that must be present to sustain circular motion.
当质量为m的物体以恒定速率v沿半径为r的圆周路径运动时，它受到指向圆心的向心加速度。所需的向心力由F = mv²/r给出。这些术语常被误解：向心力不是一种新的力——它是维持圆周运动所必需的合力。
a = v²/r = ω²r F = mv²/r
a = v²/r = ω²r F = mv²/r
ω = 2π/T = 2πf
ω = 2π/T = 2πf
11. Command Words in Exam Questions | 试题中的指令词
AQA exam questions use specific command words that determine the depth and type of response expected. Understanding these words is as important as knowing the physics content.
AQA试题使用特定的指令词来确定所期望答案的深度和类型。理解这些词与掌握物理内容同样重要。
Key command words and their meanings:
关键指令词及其含义：
| Command word | What you must do |
| Define | State the precise meaning of a term, usually from a definition you have memorised |
| Define（定义
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