📚 Wilhelmine Germany 1890–1914 | 威廉德国 1890–1914
This unit examines the political, social and economic forces that shaped Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II from Bismarck's fall in 1890 to the outbreak of the First World War. It traces the shift from Bismarck's continental diplomacy to Weltpolitik, the growth of militarism and naval power, the rise of the SPD and the unresolved constitutional tensions that made the Kaiserreich both dynamic and unstable.
本单元考察1890年俾斯麦下台至1914年一战爆发期间塑造德国的政治、社会与经济力量。它追溯从俾斯麦大陆外交向世界政策的转变、军国主义与海军力量的扩张、德国社民党的崛起，以及使德意志帝国既充满活力又极不稳定的未解决宪法矛盾。
1. The Political System and the Kaiser | 政治体制与皇帝
Wilhelmine Germany was a constitutional monarchy in form but an authoritarian state in practice. The 1871 constitution gave the Kaiser command of the armed forces, control of foreign policy and the power to appoint and dismiss the chancellor.
威廉时期的德国在形式上是君主立宪制，实际上却是一个威权国家。1871年宪法赋予皇帝对武装力量的指挥权、外交政策的控制权以及任免宰相的权力。
The Reichstag was elected by all men over 25, yet it could not initiate legislation effectively and had no power to remove the chancellor. Prussia, which dominated the federation, retained a three-class franchise that heavily favoured the propertied elite.
帝国议会由25岁以上全体男性选民选举产生，但实际上无法有效提出立法，也无权罢免宰相。主导联邦的普鲁士保留了三级选举制，严重偏袒有产精英。
2. The 'New Course' under Caprivi | 卡普里维的 '新路线'
Bismarck's dismissal in March 1890 marked the start of the 'personal rule' of Wilhelm II. His successor, Leo von Caprivi, launched a 'New Course' intended to reconcile the working classes and modernise the economy.
1890年3月俾斯麦被解职，标志着威廉二世'亲政'的开始。其继任者列奥·冯·卡普里维推行'新路线'，旨在调和工人阶级矛盾并实现经济现代化。
Caprivi signed commercial treaties with Russia, Austria-Hungary and other states, lowering tariffs on agricultural imports. The policy reduced the price of food and helped exporters, but it infuriated the powerful Prussian landowners who demanded protection.
卡普里维与俄国、奥匈帝国等国家签订了贸易条约，降低了农产品进口关税。这一政策降低了食品价格并有利于出口商，但激怒了要求保护关税的有势力普鲁士地主。
He also introduced progressive income tax and modest social welfare measures, and allowed the anti-socialist laws to lapse. However, the Agrarian League mobilised against him and the Kaiser forced him out in 1894.
他还推行累进所得税和适度的社会福利措施，并让反社会主义法失效。然而，农业联盟动员力量反对他，皇帝于1894年迫使他下台。
3. Weltpolitik and the Bülow Era | 世界政策与比洛时代
From the late 1890s Germany pursued Weltpolitik, a more assertive global foreign policy. Bernhard von Bülow, chancellor from 1900 to 1909, famously demanded a 'place in the sun' for Germany.
从1890年代末起，德国推行更具进攻性的全球外交政策——世界政策。1900至1909年担任宰相的伯恩哈德·冯·比洛提出了著名的要求：德国要争取'阳光下的地盘'。
Weltpolitik aimed to expand German markets, acquire colonies and build a high seas fleet. It reflected the ambitions of industrial and nationalist groups, but it also increased friction with Britain and France.
世界政策旨在拓展德国市场、获取殖民地和建设公海舰队。它反映了工业界和民族主义集团的野心，但也加剧了与英法的摩擦。
Bülow's tenure saw the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905, when Germany tried to break the Anglo-French Entente by challenging French influence in Morocco. The attempt backfired and strengthened the Entente.
比洛任内发生了1905年第一次摩洛哥危机，德国试图通过挑战法国在摩洛哥的影响力来拆散英法协约。这一企图适得其反，反而强化了协约。
4. The Tirpitz Plan and Naval Expansion | 提尔皮茨计划与海军扩张
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became State Secretary of the Navy in 1897 and masterminded the Naval Laws of 1898 and 1900. His 'risk theory' argued that Germany needed a fleet strong enough to deter Britain from attacking it.
阿尔弗雷德·冯·提尔皮茨海军上将于189
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