📚 Mastering Edexcel Combined Science 095: Core Concepts | 掌握 Edexcel 综合科学 095：核心概念
This revision guide covers the core ideas tested in Edexcel Combined Science 095, bringing together essential biology, chemistry and physics in one place. It is designed to help you recall key definitions, apply equations and structure your answers clearly.
本复习指南涵盖 Edexcel 综合科学 095 的核心考点，将生物学、化学和物理学的重点整合在一起，帮助你记忆关键定义、运用公式并清晰地组织答案。
1. Cell Structure and Function | 细胞结构与功能
All living organisms are made of cells. Animal cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes, whereas plant cells also have a cell wall, chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole.
所有生物都由细胞组成。动物细胞含有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体，而植物细胞还含有细胞壁、叶绿体和永久液泡。
The nucleus controls cell activities and stores genetic material; mitochondria release energy through aerobic respiration; ribosomes carry out protein synthesis.
细胞核控制细胞活动并储存遗传物质；线粒体通过有氧呼吸释放能量；核糖体进行蛋白质合成。
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Magnification questions require consistent units, usually millimetres or micrometres. Convert mm to µm by multiplying by 1000.
放大倍数计算题要求单位统一，通常使用毫米或微米。将毫米转换为微米需要乘以 1000。
2. Biological Molecules and Enzymes | 生物分子与酶
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the main biological molecules. Carbohydrates are made of simple sugars such as glucose; proteins are made of amino acids; lipids are made of fatty acids and glycerol.
碳水化合物、蛋白质和脂质是主要的生物分子。碳水化合物由葡萄糖等单糖组成；蛋白质由氨基酸组成；脂质由脂肪酸和甘油组成。
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up. The lock-and-key model explains that each enzyme has an active site complementary to its substrate.
酶是生物催化剂，能够加快反应速度而本身不被消耗。锁钥模型说明每种酶都有一个与其底物互补的活性位点。
High temperature or extreme pH can denature enzymes by changing the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer bind.
高温或极端 pH 会使酶变性，改变活性位点的形状，使底物无法再结合。
3. Atomic Structure and Periodic Table | 原子结构与元素周期表
Atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons have a positive charge, neutrons are neutral, and electrons have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, while electrons orbit in shells.
原子由质子、中子和电子组成。质子带正电，中子不带电，电子带负电。质子和中子位于原子核内，电子在分层轨道上运动。
The atomic number is the number of protons, and the mass number is the total number of protons plus neutrons. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number.
原子序数是质子数，质量数是质子数与中子数之和。同一元素的原子具有相同的原子序数。
Electron configuration is written as numbers of electrons in each shell, for example sodium is 2,8,1. The group number in the periodic table often equals the number of outer-shell electrons for main-group elements.
电子构型写作每层电子数，例如钠为 2,8,1。主族元素在周期表中的族数通常等于最外层电子数。
4. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions, while non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negative ions. The oppositely charged ions attract strongly.
离子键形成于金属与非金属之间。金属原子失去电子形成正离子，非金属原子得到电子形成负离子。带相反电荷的离子相互强烈吸引。
Covalent bonding occurs between non-metal atoms. Atoms share pairs of electrons to achieve a full outer shell, forming molecules such as H₂O, CO₂ and CH₄.
共价键形成于非金属原子之间。原子通过共享电子对来达到满外层，形成 H₂O、CO₂ 和 CH₄ 等分子。
Metallic bonding involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. This explains why metals conduct electricity and can be bent into shape.
金属键由正离子晶格和围绕它们的离域电子海组成。这解释了金属为何能导电并且可以被弯曲成形。
5. Quantitative Chemistry and Moles | 定量化学与摩尔
articles, known as the Avogadro constant. Relative formula mass is the sum of relative atomic masses in a formula.
摩尔是物质的量的单位。一摩尔含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子，这个数称为阿伏伽德罗常数。相对式量是化学式中各相对原子质量的总和。
moles = mass ÷ molar mass
This equation lets you convert between grams and moles. The molar mass is the relative formula mass expressed in grams per mole.
该公式可以在克和摩尔之间转换。摩尔质量是以克每摩尔表示的相对式量。
concentration = moles ÷ volume (mol/dm³)
Concentration is often measured in mol/dm³, where volume must be converted from cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000.
浓度通常以 mol/dm³ 为单位，体积需从 cm³ 换算为 dm³，即除以 1000。
6. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Speed is the distance travelled per unit time while velocity is speed in a given direction. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
速率是单位时间内通过的路程，而速度是带有方向的速率。加速度是速度变化的快慢。
speed = distance ÷ time
acceleration = change in velocity ÷ time
Newton's second law states that the resultant force acting on an object equals its mass multiplied by its acceleration.
牛顿第二定律指出，作用在物体上的合力等于物体质量与其加速度的乘积。
force = mass × acceleration
Resultant force is measured in newtons, mass in kilograms and acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s²).
合力的单位是牛顿，质量单位为千克，加速度单位为米每二次方秒 (m/s²)。
7. Energy Changes and Transfers | 能量变化与传递
Energy can be stored in many forms, including kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic, thermal and nuclear energy. It is transferred by heating, doing work, or by waves and electric currents.
能量可以多种形式储存，包括动能、重力势能、化学能、弹性势能、热能和核能。能量通过加热、做功、波动或电流进行传递。
Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature rise. Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature fall.
放热反应向周围环境释放能量，导致温度升高；吸热反应从周围环境吸收能量，导致温度降低。
efficiency = useful output energy ÷ total input energy × 100%
Efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or a percentage. No device can be more than 100% efficient because energy cannot be created.
效率可以用小数或百分数表示。任何装置的效率都不能超过 100%，因为能量不可能被创造。
8. Electricity and Circuits | 电与电路
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. In a series circuit the current is the same everywhere, while in a parallel circuit the current splits between branches.
电流是电荷流动的速率。在串联电路中，各处电流相同；在并联电路中，电流在各支路之间分配。
Potential difference is the energy transferred per unit charge. Resistance opposes the flow of current, and its unit is the ohm (Ω).
电势差是每单位电荷转移的能量。电阻阻碍电流流动，单位是欧姆 (Ω)。
potential difference = current × resistance (V = I × R)
In series circuits, the total resistance is the sum of individual resistances. In parallel circuits, the total resistance is lower than the smallest individual resistance.
在串联电路中，总电阻等于各个电阻之和；在并联电路中，总电阻小于其中最小的单个电阻。
9. Waves and the Electromagnetic Spectrum | 波动与电磁波谱
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In transverse waves, vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; in longitudinal waves, vibrations are parallel.
波传递能量而不传递物质。在横波中，振动方向与能量传递方向垂直；在纵波中，振动方向与能量传递方向平行。
wave speed = frequency × wavelength (v = f × λ)
The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
电磁波谱包括无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线。它们在真空中传播速度相同。
As frequency increases across the spectrum, wavelength decreases and energy increases. Gamma rays have the highest frequency and energy, while radio waves have the lowest.
在电磁波谱中，频率越高，波长越短，能量越大。伽马射线频率和能量最高，无线电波最低。
10. Ecology and Cycles | 生态与循环
Ecosystems are made up of communities of organisms interacting with their abiotic environment. Food chains show the transfer of energy from producers to consumers.
生态系统由生物群落与其非生物环境相互作用组成。食物链显示能量从生产者到消费者的传递。
Producers such as plants convert light energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms, and decomposers break down dead material.
植物等生产者通过光合作用将光能转化为化学能。消费者通过摄食其他生物获取能量，分解者分解死亡物质。
The carbon cycle moves carbon between the atmosphere, organisms and fossil fuels. Photosynthesis removes CO₂ from the atmosphere, while respiration, combustion and decomposition return it.
碳循环使碳在大气、生物体和化石燃料之间流动。光合作用从大气中吸收 CO₂，而呼吸作用、燃烧和分解则将其释放回大气。
The water cycle involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation and transpiration. These processes continuously circulate water between the land, oceans and atmosphere.
水循环包括蒸发、凝结、降水和蒸腾作用。这些过程使水在陆地、海洋和大气之间不断循环。
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