📚 Pricing Policy | 定价政策
Pricing policy is central to microeconomics and business strategy. It explains how firms set prices, why the same product may have different prices in different markets, and what consequences pricing decisions have for consumers, efficiency and welfare.
定价政策是微观经济学和商业战略的核心内容。它解释了企业如何设定价格、为什么同一产品在不同市场可能有不同的价格，以及定价决策对消费者、效率和福利产生哪些后果。
In Cambridge A-Level Economics, candidates are expected to link pricing methods to costs, elasticity, market structure and government intervention, and to evaluate the wider economic effects of pricing behaviour.
在剑桥 A-Level 经济学中，考生需要将定价方法与成本、弹性、市场结构和政府干预联系起来，并评价定价行为更广泛的经济影响。
1. The meaning and objectives of pricing policy | 定价政策的含义与目标
Pricing policy is the set of decisions a firm makes about the price level, price structure and adjustments over time. It is influenced by internal costs, market demand, the intensity of competition and the firm's strategic goals.
定价政策是企业对价格水平、价格结构以及随时间调整所做的一系列决策。它受到内部成本、市场需求、竞争强度和企业战略目标的影响。
st (MR = MC) and then sets the highest price consumers are willing to pay for that output.
一个常见的出发点是利润最大化，即企业选择边际收益等于边际成本（MR = MC）的产量，然后设定消费者愿意为该产量支付的最高价格。
Other objectives include revenue maximisation, gaining market share, survival during recession, or satisfying stakeholders such as employees and communities. A firm may operate several pricing policies at once: a premium price for a high-end product and an economy price for a budget line, reflecting different target segments.
其他目标包括收入最大化、获取市场份额、在经济衰退中生存，或满足员工和社区等利益相关者。企业可能同时采用几种定价政策：对高端产品使用溢价定价，对平价产品线使用经济定价，以反映不同的目标细分市场。
2. Cost-based pricing methods | 基于成本的定价方法
Cost-plus pricing adds a fixed percentage mark-up to average total cost. This method is simple, ensures that all costs are covered and can be used by firms with limited information about demand.
成本加成定价是在平均总成本上加上固定的百分比加成。这种方法简单、确保所有成本得到覆盖，适用于对需求信息有限的企业。
Cost-plus pricing is common in retailing and public utilities because it is transparent and can be justified to regulators. However, it ignores demand conditions and competitor prices, and it can encourage inefficiency because higher costs automatically lead to higher prices.
成本加成定价在零售和公用事业中很常见，因为它透明且易于向监管机构说明理由。然而，它忽视了需求状况和竞争者价格，并且可能鼓励低效率，因为更高的成本会自动导致更高的价格。
Contribution or marginal-cost pricing sets price above average variable cost so that each unit sold makes a contribution to fixed costs. It is useful when a firm has spare capacity or faces intense price competition, but a major weakness is the circularity problem: the mark-up depends on output, output depends on price, and the firm may set a price that does not clear the market.
贡献定价或边际成本定价将价格定在平均可变成本之上，使每售出一单位都能对固定成本做出贡献。当企业有闲置产能或面临激烈的价格竞争时，这种方法很有用。但一个主要弱点是循环性问题：加成取决于产量，产量取决于价格，企业可能设定一个无法使市场出清的价格。
3. Demand-based pricing and elasticity | 基于需求的定价与弹性
Demand-based pricing uses the responsiveness of quantity demanded to price, measured by price elasticity of demand (PED).
基于需求的定价利用需求量对价格的反应程度，即需求价格弹性（PED）来衡量。
PED = %Δ quantity demanded ÷ %Δ price
If demand is price elastic (PED > 1), a price reduction raises total revenue because the percentage increase in quantity demanded exceeds the percentage fall in price.
如果需求富有弹性（PED > 1），降价会提高总收入，因为需求量增加的百分比超过价格下降的百分比。
If demand is price inelastic (PED < 1), a price increase raises total revenue because quantity demanded falls proportionately less than the price rise.
如果需求缺乏弹性（PED < 1），提价会提高总收入，因为需求量下降的比例小于价格上涨的比例。
Firms may therefore adjust prices according to the estimated elasticity of different customer segments, such as charging higher prices to business travellers with inelastic demand and lower prices to leisure travellers with elastic demand.
因此，企业可以根据不同顾客群体的估计弹性来调整价格，例如对需求缺乏弹性的商务旅客收取更高价格，而对需求富有弹性的休闲旅客收取更低价格。
4. Competition-based pricing | 基于竞争的定价
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