📚 16: What is Marketing? | 什么是市场营销？
Marketing is often misunderstood as just advertising or selling. In A-Level Business, marketing is a much broader management process that focuses on identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer needs profitably. This chapter introduces the core concepts of marketing, the difference between market and marketing, customer value, market orientation, and how businesses measure and analyse markets.
市场营销常常被误解为仅仅是广告或推销。在 A-Level 商务中，市场营销是一个广泛得多的管理过程，重点是识别、预测并有盈利地满足顾客需要。本章介绍市场营销的核心概念、市场与市场营销的区别、顾客价值、市场导向，以及企业如何衡量和分析市场。
1. Defining Marketing | 市场营销的定义
Marketing is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably. This definition, widely used by the Chartered Institute of Marketing, is useful for A-Level Business because it makes clear that marketing is not just promotion; it involves research, planning, decision-making and customer focus.
市场营销是负责识别、预测并有盈利地满足顾客需求的管理过程。这个由英国特许市场营销学会广泛使用的定义对 A-Level 商务很有用，因为它清楚表明市场营销不仅仅是促销；它涉及调研、计划、决策和对顾客的关注。
Marketing starts before a product exists. A business must first identify a customer need, design a product or service to meet that need, set an appropriate price, and make the product available where customers expect to buy it.
市场营销在产品出现之前就开始了。企业必须首先识别顾客需要，设计产品或服务来满足这种需要，制定合适的价格，并在顾客期望购买的地点提供产品。
Marketing is an ongoing process, not a one-off activity. Customer needs change over time, so businesses must continue to collect market information and adapt their products, prices and promotion to remain competitive.
市场营销是一个持续的过程，而不是一次性活动。顾客需要会随着时间变化，因此企业必须不断收集市场信息，调整产品、价格和促销方式，以保持竞争力。
2. The Purpose of Marketing | 市场营销的目的
The main purpose of marketing is to create value for customers and build long-term relationships, so that the business can earn revenue and profit in return. A business that consistently meets customer needs is more likely to enjoy repeat purchases and positive word of mouth.
市场营销的主要目的是为顾客创造价值并建立长期关系，从而使企业能够获得收入和利润作为回报。持续满足顾客需要的企业更有可能获得重复购买和良好的口碑。
Marketing also helps a business use its resources efficiently. By understanding what customers want before production begins, the business avoids wasting money on products that nobody will buy.
市场营销还能帮助企业有效利用资源。通过在生产开始前了解顾客想要什么，企业可以避免在无人购买的产品上浪费资金。
In addition, marketing enables a business to differentiate its products from those of competitors. This differentiation can reduce price competition, strengthen brand loyalty and allow the business to charge premium prices.
此外，市场营销使企业能够将其产品与竞争对手的产品区分开来。这种差异化可以减少价格竞争、增强品牌忠诚度，并允许企业收取更高的价格。
3. Customer Needs, Wants and Demands | 顾客需要、欲望与需求
A need is a basic requirement for survival or normal life, such as food, clothing, transport or communication. A want is a specific way of satisfying that need, and it is influenced by culture, personality, income and marketing. Demand is a want that is backed by the ability and willingness to pay.
需要是生存或正常生活的基本要求，例如食物、衣服、交通或通信。欲望是满足这种需要的具体方式，它受到文化、个性、收入和市场营销的影响。需求则是有支付能力和支付意愿支撑的欲望。
Marketers do not create basic needs, but they can shape wants by showing how a product satisfies a need better than alternatives. For example, a person needs transport, but advertising may influence whether that person wants a bicycle, a car or a motorcycle.
市场营销人员并不创造基本需要，但他们可以通过展示产品如何比替代品更好地满足需要来影响欲望。例如，一个人需要交通工具，但广告可能影响这个人想要自行车、汽车还是摩托车。
Effective demand is the amount of a product that customers are actually willing and able to buy at a given price. Businesses must consider both desire and purchasing power when estimating potential sales.
有效需求是指在给定价格下顾客实际愿意并且能够购买的产品数量。企业在估计潜在销售量时，必须同时考虑购买欲望和购买力。
4. Marketing vs Selling | 市场营销与推销的区别
Selling focuses on pushing an existing product to customers, often through persuasion and aggressive promotion. Marketing focuses on pulling customers by designing the product around their needs before it is sold.
推销的重点是通过说服和积极的促销将现有产品推给顾客。市场营销的重点是在产品销售之前围绕顾客需求设计产品，从而吸引顾客。
The selling orientation is product-centred: make the product first, then try to persuade customers to buy it. The marketing orientation is customer-centred: find out what customers want first, then make and deliver it.
推销导向以产品为中心：先生产产品，然后努力说服顾客购买。市场营销导向以顾客为中心：先了解顾客想要什么，然后生产和交付产品。
| Feature | 特征 | Selling Orientation | 推销导向 | Marketing Orientation | 市场营销导向 |
|---|---|---|
| Starting point | 起点 | Factory | 工厂 | Customer needs | 顾客需要 |
| Main focus | 主要焦点 | Existing product | 现有产品 | Customer satisfaction | 顾客满意 |
| Means | 手段 | Persuasion and promotion | 说服与促销 | Integrated marketing mix | 整合市场营销组合 |
| End result | 最终结果 | Profit through sales volume | 通过销售量获利 | Profit through customer loyalty | 通过顾客忠诚获利 |
In modern competitive markets, a pure selling orientation is risky because customers usually have many choices. A marketing orientation helps a business build a stronger connection with customers and respond more quickly to changes in taste.
在现代竞争性市场中，纯粹的推销导向是有风险的，因为顾客通常有很多选择。市场营销导向有助于企业与顾客建立更强的联系，并更快地响应品味的变化。
5. Market Orientation vs Product Orientation | 市场导向与产品导向
Market orientation means that a business continuously researches customer needs, competitor actions and market trends before making product and pricing decisions. The voice of the customer drives the business.
市场导向意味着企业在做出产品和定价决策之前，持续研究顾客需要、竞争对手的行动和市场趋势。顾客的声音驱动着企业。
Product orientation means that a business focuses on producing high-quality or innovative products and then tries to find customers for them. This approach is common in technology, pharmaceuticals and luxury goods, where customers may not yet know what is possible.
产品导向意味着企业专注于生产高质量或创新性产品，然后努力为这些产品寻找顾客。这种方法在技术、制药和奢侈品行业很常见，因为顾客可能还不知道有哪些可能。
A market-oriented business is usually more responsive to demand and faces lower risk of product failure. However, it may miss radical innovations because customers cannot always describe what they will want in the future.
市场导向的企业通常更能响应需求，产品失败的风险也较低。然而，它可能错过根本性创新，因为顾客并不总能描述他们未来会想要什么。
A product-oriented business can achieve high margins if its innovation succeeds, but it risks spending heavily on products that do not match customer expectations. In practice, many businesses combine both approaches.
产品导向的企业如果创新成功，可以获得高利润，但风险是在不符合顾客期望的产品上大量投入。实际上，许多企业将两种方法结合起来。
6. Customer Value and Satisfaction | 顾客价值与满意度
Customer value is the difference between the benefits a customer gains from a product and the costs of obtaining it. Costs include not only price but also time, effort and risk. A customer will choose the product that offers the greatest perceived value.
顾客价值是顾客从产品中获得的利益与获取该产品所付出的成本之间的差额。成本不仅包括价格，还包括时间、精力和风险。顾客会选择感知价值最大的产品。
Satisfaction occurs when a product meets or exceeds customer expectations. If expectations are too high, dissatisfaction can result even if the product is objectively good. Therefore, businesses must manage both product quality and customer expectations.
满意度发生在产品达到或超过顾客期望的时候。如果期望过高，即使产品客观上很好，也可能导致不满意。因此，企业必须同时管理产品质量和顾客期望。
Relationship marketing aims to retain existing customers by building trust and loyalty over time. Retaining customers is often cheaper than attracting new ones, and loyal customers tend to buy more and recommend the business to others.
关系营销旨在通过长期建立信任和忠诚来留住现有顾客。留住顾客通常比吸引新顾客更便宜，而忠诚顾客往往会购买更多，并向他人推荐该企业。
7. Markets: Types and Characteristics | 市场的类型与特征
A market is any place or mechanism where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods or services. It can be physical, such as a retail store or a street market, or virtual, such as an e-commerce website.
市场是买卖双方会面交换商品或服务的任何场所或机制。它可以是实体场所，如零售店或街市，也可以是虚拟场所，如电子商务网站。
Markets can be classified by product type. Consumer markets sell goods and services to final consumers for personal use. Industrial markets sell goods and services to other businesses for use in production or resale.
市场可以按产品类型分类。消费者市场向最终消费者出售供个人使用的商品和服务。工业市场向其他企业出售用于生产或转售的商品和服务。
Markets can also be classified by geographical area: local, national, regional or international. A business must understand the size, growth and competitiveness of its chosen market before investing resources in it.
市场还可以按地理区域分类：本地、全国、区域或国际市场。企业在向所选市场投入资源之前，必须了解该市场的规模、增长和竞争状况。
Market size refers to the total sales volume or value in a market over a period. Market share is the proportion of total market sales held by one business or brand. Both measures are essential for setting marketing objectives.
市场规模是指某一时期市场中的总销售量或销售额。市场份额是指一个企业或品牌所占总市场销售额的比例。这两个指标对于制定市场营销目标都至关重要。
Market share (%) = (Company sales ÷ Total market sales) × 100
市场份额 (%) = (企业销售额 ÷ 市场总销售额) × 100
8. Measuring the Market: Size, Share and Growth | 衡量市场：规模、份额与增长
Businesses measure market size to determine whether a market is worth entering or investing in. Market size can be measured by volume, such as the number of units sold, or by value, such as total sales revenue.
企业衡量市场规模是为了确定一个市场是否值得进入或投资。市场规模可以用数量来衡量，例如销售的单位数量，也可以用价值来衡量，例如总销售收入。
Market growth is the percentage change in total market size over a period. A growing market offers more opportunities, while a shrinking market can create intense competition for a smaller number of customers.
市场增长是指一定时期内市场总规模变化的百分比。增长中的市场提供更多机会，而萎缩中的市场可能会导致对更少顾客的激烈竞争。
Market growth (%) = (Change in market size ÷ Original market size) × 100
市场增长率 (%) = (市场规模变化量 ÷ 原始市场规模) × 100
Market share is a key indicator of competitiveness. A rising market share may indicate stronger brand preference or a more effective marketing mix, while falling share may signal competitive weakness or poor customer satisfaction.
市场份额是竞争力的关键指标。市场份额上升可能表明品牌偏好更强或市场营销组合更有效，而市场份额下降则可能反映出竞争劣势或顾客满意度较差。
For example, if a company has sales of $2 million in a market worth $10 million, its market share is 20%. If the market grows from $10 million to $12 million, market growth is 20%.
例如，如果一家公司在价值 1000 万美元的市场中销售额为 200 万美元，那么它的市场份额是 20%。如果市场从 1000 万美元增长到 1200 万美元，市场增长率就是 20%。
9. B2B and B2C Marketing | B2B 与 B2C 市场营销
B2C stands for business-to-consumer. In B2C marketing, a business sells goods or services directly to individual consumers for their own personal use. Purchases are often emotional, small in scale and made frequently.
B2C 表示企业对消费者。在 B2C 市场营销中，企业直接向个人消费者销售供其个人使用的商品或服务。购买往往带有情感色彩、规模较小且频繁发生。
B2B stands for business-to-business. In B2B marketing, a business sells to other organisations, such as manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers or government agencies. Purchases are often rational, large-scale and based on detailed specifications.
B2B 表示企业对企业。在 B2B 市场营销中，企业向其他组织销售产品，例如制造商、批发商、零售商或政府机构。购买往往更为理性、规模较大，并基于详细规格。
The marketing mix is applied differently in each context. B2B marketing usually relies more on personal selling, long-term relationships and technical support, while B2C marketing relies more on advertising, brand image and wide distribution.
市场营销组合在两种情境中的应用有所不同。B2B 市场营销通常更多地依赖人员推销、长期关系和技术支持，而 B2C 市场营销则更多地依赖广告、品牌形象和广泛的分销渠道。
10. The Marketing Mix: An Overview | 市场营销组合概述
The marketing mix is the set of controllable elements that a business combines to meet customer needs and achieve its marketing objectives. The traditional framework is known as the 4Ps.
市场营销组合是企业为满足顾客需要和实现市场营销目标而组合的一组可控要素。传统的框架被称为 4P。
The 4Ps are Product, Price, Place and Promotion. Product includes design, features, quality and branding. Price includes the level charged, discounts and credit terms. Place includes distribution channels, logistics and coverage. Promotion includes advertising, sales promotion, public relations and personal selling.
4P 是产品、价格、渠道和促销。产品包括设计、特性、质量和品牌。价格包括收取的价格水平、折扣和信用条款。渠道包括分销渠道、物流和覆盖范围。促销包括广告、销售促进、公共关系和人员推销。
For services, three additional Ps are often added: People, Process and Physical evidence, making the 7Ps. These extra elements matter because services are intangible and customers often judge quality by staff, procedures and environment.
对于服务，通常还会增加三个 P：人员、流程和实物证据，形成 7P。这些额外要素很重要，因为服务是无形的，顾客往往通过员工、流程和环境来判断质量。
The elements of the marketing mix must be integrated. A high-quality product with a low price but poor distribution or weak promotion will not succeed. The mix should send a consistent message to the target market.
市场营销组合的各要素必须相互整合。一个高质量的产品如果价格低但分销差或促销弱，也不会成功。组合应向目标市场传递一致的信息。
11. Marketing Objectives and Strategy | 市场营销目标与战略
Marketing objectives are specific goals that support the overall corporate objectives of a business. Common marketing objectives include increasing market share, launching a new product, entering a new market, raising brand awareness and improving customer loyalty.
市场营销目标是支持企业总体公司目标的具体目标。常见的市场营销目标包括提高市场份额、推出新产品、进入新市场、提高品牌知名度和提高顾客忠诚度。
Marketing strategy is the long-term plan for achieving marketing objectives. It usually includes segmentation, targeting, positioning and the design of an appropriate marketing mix.
市场营销战略是实现市场营销目标的长期计划。它通常包括市场细分、目标市场选择、市场定位以及适当市场营销组合的设计。
Marketing objectives should be SMART: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound. For example, a SMART objective would be to increase market share from 10% to 15% within 12 months.
市场营销目标应当是 SMART 的：具体
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