📚 IGCSE CAIE Psychology: Core Knowledge Points | IGCSE CAIE心理学：核心知识点梳理
IGCSE CAIE Psychology introduces you to the scientific study of mind and behaviour. You need not only to describe key concepts but also to apply research methods, interpret data, and evaluate classic studies.
IGCSE CAIE心理学引导你科学地研究心理与行为。你不仅要描述核心概念，还要能应用研究方法、解释数据并评价经典研究。
1. Research Methods: Variables and Hypotheses | 研究方法：变量与假设
Psychology is built on empirical evidence. In an experiment, the independent variable (IV) is the factor a researcher changes or manipulates, while the dependent variable (DV) is the factor measured to see the effect.
心理学建立在实证证据之上。在实验中，自变量（IV）是研究者改变或操纵的因素，而因变量（DV）是为了观察效果而测量的因素。
A hypothesis must be testable and clearly operationalised. For example, 'Participants who drink 200 ml of coffee will name more words in a recall test than participants who drink 200 ml of water' specifies both conditions and the DV.
假设必须可检验且被明确操作性定义。例如，“饮用200毫升咖啡的参与者在回忆测试中说出的单词数量会多于饮用200毫升水的参与者”这一假设明确说明了实验条件和因变量。
- Independent variable: the manipulated variable
- Dependent variable: the measured variable
- Control variables: factors kept constant to avoid confounding
- Operationalisation: defining variables so they can be measured or manipulated
- 自变量：被操纵的变量
- 因变量：被测量的变量
- 控制变量：为避免混淆而保持恒定的因素
- 操作性定义：对变量进行可测量或可操纵的定义
2. Experimental Designs and Controls | 实验设计与控制
There are three common experimental designs. Independent groups design uses different participants in each condition; repeated measures design uses the same participants in all conditions; matched pairs design matches participants on relevant characteristics before assigning them to conditions.
常见的实验设计有三种。独立组设计在不同实验条件下使用不同的参与者；重复测量设计在所有条件下使用相同的参与者；配对组设计先按相关特征匹配参与者，再将其分配到不同条件中。
| Design | 设计类型 | Strengths | 优点 | Weaknesses | 缺点 |
|---|---|---|
| Independent groups | 独立组 | No order effects | 无顺序效应 | Participant variables may differ | 参与者个体差异可能干扰 |
| Repeated measures | 重复测量 | Controls participant variables | 控制参与者个体差异 | Order effects such as practice or fatigue | 顺序效应，如练习或疲劳 |
| Matched pairs | 配对组 | Reduces participant variables | 减少参与者个体差异 | Matching is difficult and time-consuming | 匹配困难且耗时 |
Standardised procedures, random allocation, and counterbalancing are key controls. They increase internal validity by reducing investigator effects and demand characteristics.
标准化程序、随机分配和平衡顺序是重要的控制手段。它们通过减少研究者效应和需求特征来提高内部效度。
3. Sampling and Data Handling | 抽样与数据处理
A sample is a smaller group drawn from a target population. Random sampling gives every member an equal chance of selection, which reduces sampling bias. Opportunity sampling uses people who are available, while self-selected sampling relies on volunteers.
样本是从目标总体中抽取的较小群体。随机抽样使每个成员都有均等的选择机会，从而减少抽样偏差。机会抽样使用便于接触的人，而自选抽样依赖自愿参与者。
Psychologists collect quantitative data in numerical form and qualitative data in descriptive form. Measures of central tendency include mean, median, and mode. The range describes the spread of scores.
心理学家收集以数字形式存在的定量数据和以描述形式存在的定性数据。集中趋势的测量包括平均数、中位数和众数。极差用于描述分数的离散程度。
- Mean: arithmetic average, affected by outliers
- Median: middle value, less affected by outliers
- Mode: most frequent value
- Range: highest score minus lowest score
- 平均数：算数平均值，易受极端值影响
- 中位数：中间值，受极端值影响较小
- 众数：出现次数最多的值
- 极差：最高分减去最低分
4. Ethical Guidelines in Psychology | 心理学伦理准则
CAIE expects you to know ethical issues in research. Informed consent means participants should know the aim and procedures before agreeing. The right to withdraw allows participants to leave at any time.
CAIE要求你了解研究中的伦理问题。知情同意意味着参与者在同意前应当了解研究目的和程序。退出权允许参与者随时离开。
Confidentiality protects personal data. Deception should be avoided unless necessary, and researchers must debrief participants afterwards. Protection from harm is essential, as seen in the ethical criticisms of Milgram's obedience study and Zimbardo's prison study.
保密原则保护个人资料。除非必要，研究者应当避免欺骗，并且研究后必须向参与者进行事后解释。保护参与者免受伤害至关重要，这一点在米尔格拉姆服从研究和津巴多监狱研究的伦理批评中尤为明显。
- Informed consent | 知情同意
- Right to withdraw | 退出权
- Confidentiality | 保密
- Protection from harm | 免受伤害
- Debriefing | 事后解释
5. Biological Psychology: Nervous System and Brain | 生物心理学：神经系统与大脑
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system carries messages between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. Neurons transmit information through electrical impulses and chemical signals.
中枢神经系统由大脑和脊髓组成。外周神经系统在中枢神经系统与身体其他部分之间传递信息。神经元通过电冲动和化学信号传递信息。
Sensory neurons carry signals from receptors to the central nervous system; motor neurons carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands; relay neurons connect sensory and motor neurons. Neurotransmitters cross the synapse to continue the signal.
感觉神经元将信号从感受器传向中枢神经系统；运动神经元将信号从中枢神经系统传向肌肉和腺体；中间神经元连接感觉神经元和运动神经元。神经递质穿过突触以传递信号。
- Frontal lobe: decision-making and voluntary movement | 额叶：决策和随意运动
- Temporal lobe: hearing and memory | 颞叶：听觉和记忆
- Parietal lobe: touch and spatial awareness | 顶叶：触觉和空间意识
- Occipital lobe: vision | 枕叶：视觉
- Cerebellum: balance and coordination | 小脑：平衡与协调
6. Sleep and Dreams | 睡眠与梦
Sleep follows a repeating cycle of non-REM and REM stages. REM sleep involves rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming. Non-REM sleep includes deeper stages of physical restoration.
睡眠遵循非快速眼动和快速眼动阶段的重复循环。快速眼动睡眠涉及快速眼球运动、大脑活动增加和生动的梦境。非快速眼动睡眠包含身体恢复的深睡眠阶段。
Dement and Kleitman (1957) found that participants awakened during REM sleep were more likely to report dreams than those awakened during non-REM sleep. This supports a link between REM and dreaming.
德蒙特和克莱特曼（1957）发现，在快速眼动睡眠期间被唤醒的参与者比在非快速眼动睡眠期间被唤醒的参与者更有可能报告做梦。这支持了快速眼动睡眠与梦之间的关联。
Explanations of dreaming include Freud's wish-fulfilment theory, which views dreams as unconscious desires, and activation-synthesis theory, which suggests the brain tries to make sense of random neural firing. The IGCSE course expects you to compare these explanations rather than simply describe one.
梦的解释包括弗洛伊德的愿望满足理论，该理论将梦视为无意识欲望；还有激活-合成理论，它认为大脑试图理解随机的神经放电。IGCSE课程要求你比较这些解释，而不只是描述其中一种。
7. Cognitive Psychology: Models of Memory | 认知心理学：记忆模型
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) proposes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information moves between stores through attention and rehearsal.
记忆的多重储存模型（阿特金森和希夫林，1968）提出了三个独立的储存库：感觉登记、短期记忆和长期记忆。信息通过注意和复述在储存库之间转移。
Short-term memory has limited capacity around five to nine items and limited duration. Long-term memory has potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Encoding differs too: STM often uses acoustic coding, while LTM uses semantic coding.
短期记忆的容量有限，大约为5到9个项目，持续时间也有限。长期记忆的容量和持续时间在理论上是无限的。编码方式也不同：短期记忆常使用声学编码，而长期记忆使用语义编码。
Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that STM duration without rehearsal is around 18 to 30 seconds. Miller (1956) found that STM capacity is about 7 plus or minus 2 chunks.
彼得森和彼得森（1959）表明，在没有复述的情况下，短期记忆的持续时间约为18到30秒。米勒（1956）发现短期记忆容量约为7加减2个组块。
8. Forgetting and Reconstructive Memory | 遗忘与重构性记忆
Forgetting can be explained by decay, interference, and retrieval failure. Proactive interference occurs when old learning disrupts new learning; retroactive interference occurs when new learning disrupts old learning.
遗忘可以用衰退、干扰和提取失败来解释。前摄干扰是指旧的学习干扰新的学习；倒摄干扰是指新的学习干扰旧的学习。
Bartlett (1932) demonstrated that memory is reconstructive. His 'War of the Ghosts' study showed participants changed unfamiliar details to fit their own cultural schemas. This means memory is not a perfect recording but an active reconstruction.
巴特利特（1932）证明记忆具有重构性。他的“幽灵之战”研究表明，参与者会改变不熟悉的细节以符合他们自己的文化图式。这意味着记忆不是完美的录像，而是主动的重构。
Loftus and Palmer (1974) provided evidence that leading questions can distort eyewitness memory. Participants who heard the word 'smashed' estimated higher speeds than those who heard 'contacted'.
洛夫特斯和帕尔默（1974）提供证据表明，诱导性问题会扭曲目击者记忆。听到“猛撞”一词的参与者比听到“接触”一词的参与者估计的车速更高。
9. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in belief or behaviour due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch (1951) found that around one third of participants conformed to an obviously wrong group answer on a line judgement task.
从众是指由于真实或想象的群体压力而改变信念或行为。阿希（1951）发现，在判断线段任务中，约三分之一的参与者会服从明显错误的群体答案。
Normative influence occurs when we conform to fit in and avoid rejection. Informational influence occurs when we conform because we believe others are correct. Group size, unanimity, and task difficulty affect conformity levels.
规范影响发生在我们为了融入群体、避免被排斥而从众时。信息影响发生在我们因为相信他人是正确的而从众时。群体规模、一致性和任务难度都会影响从众水平。
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram (1963) found that 65 percent of participants gave what they believed were dangerous electric shocks up to 450 volts. This shows ordinary people may obey authority even when it conflicts with personal conscience.
服从是指遵从权威人物直接下达的命令。米尔格拉姆（1963）发现，65%的参与者给出了他们认为达到450伏的危险电击。这表明普通人在权威与个人良知冲突时也可能服从权威。
10. Prosocial Behaviour and the Bystander Effect | 亲社会行为与旁观者效应
Prosocial behaviour is any act intended to help others. The bystander effect refers to the finding that individuals are less likely to help when other people are present. Latane and Darley (1968) explained this through diffusion of responsibility.
亲社会行为是指任何旨在帮助他人的行为。旁观者效应是指当有其他人在场时，个体更不可能提供帮助的现象。拉塔内和达利（1968）用责任分散来解释这一现象。
In their smoke-filled room study, participants alone were more likely to report smoke than participants in groups. The presence of passive bystanders can make people interpret a situation as non-emergency.
在他们的烟雾房间研究中，单独一人的参与者比群体中的参与者更有可能报告烟雾。被动的旁观者在场会让人把情境解释为非紧急事件。
Factors that increase helping include feeling personally responsible, having relevant skills, being in a good mood, and sharing group identity with the victim. The IGCSE exam often asks you to apply these factors to a scenario.
增加助人行为的因素包括感到个人有责任、具备相关技能、心情良好以及与受害者有共同群体身份。IGCSE考试常要求你将这些因素应用到具体情境中。
11. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver. Bowlby viewed attachment as adaptive and proposed a critical period during which attachment needs to form.
依恋是婴儿与主要照料者之间强烈的情感纽带。鲍尔比认为依恋具有适应性，并提出了依恋形成的关键期。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation identified three main attachment types: secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant. Securely attached infants use the caregiver as a safe base; avoidant infants show little distress on separation; resistant infants are clingy and hard to comfort.
安斯沃思的陌生情境实验确定了三种主要的依恋类型：安全型、不安全回避型和不安全抵抗型。安全型依恋的婴儿将照料者作为安全基地；回避型婴儿在分离时几乎没有表现出痛苦；抵抗型婴儿表现黏人且难以安抚。
Harlow's monkey studies showed that infant rhesus monkeys preferred a soft cloth surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided food. This challenges the idea that attachment is only about feeding and highlights the role of contact comfort.
哈洛的猴子研究表明，幼年恒河猴更喜欢柔软的绒布代替母亲，而不是提供食物的铁丝母亲。这挑战了依恋仅与喂养有关的观点，并强调了接触安慰的作用。
12. Key Studies and Exam Evaluation | 经典研究评价与考试技巧
When evaluating studies, you should comment on validity, reliability, generalisability, ethics, and practical applications. For example, Milgram's study had high internal validity because it was a controlled lab setting, but it has been criticised for lacking ecological realism and raising ethical issues.
评价研究时，你应当评论效度、信度、普适性、伦理以及实际应用。例如，米尔格拉姆的研究因为在受控实验室环境中进行而具有较高的内部效度，但它因缺乏生态真实性和引发伦理问题而受到批评。
| Study | 研究 | Area | 领域 | Key finding | 核心发现 |
|---|---|---|
| Dement and Kleitman (1957) | Sleep | 睡眠 | REM linked to dreaming | 快速眼动睡眠与梦相关 |
| Bartlett (1932) | Memory | 记忆 | Memory is reconstructive | 记忆是重构性的 |
| Milgram (1963) | Obedience | 服从 | Obedience to authority | 对权威的服从 |
| Ainsworth (1978) | Attachment | 依恋 | Attachment types | 依恋类型 |
In the exam, avoid vague phrases such as 'the study was reliable'. Instead, explain how a feature of the study affects reliability or validity. Use the PEE structure: point, evidence, explanation.
在考试中，避免使用“该研究是可靠的”这类模糊表述。相反，要解释研究的某个特征如何影响信度或效度。使用PEE结构：观点、证据、解释。
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