📚 IGCSE Cambridge Geography: Core Knowledge Review | IGCSE Cambridge 地理：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide summarises the most important Cambridge IGCSE Geography knowledge for Papers 1, 2 and 4. It connects the three syllabus themes of population and settlement, the natural environment, and economic development, while reinforcing the map skills and data-response techniques that are tested throughout the course.
本文梳理剑桥 IGCSE 地理学科的核心知识点，适用于 Paper 1、Paper 2 和 Paper 4 复习。内容围绕人口与聚落、自然环境与经济发展三大主题，同时强化全课程都会考查的地图技能与数据分析方法。
Each section below pairs exam-focused content with the practical techniques examiners reward: precise use of geographical terminology, accurate use of figures and units, and structured case-study evidence. Use it as a checklist rather than a substitute for past papers, and always test yourself by writing full answers under timed conditions.
以下每一节都把考点内容与考官真正给分的技术结合起来：精准使用地理术语、准确引用数据与单位、以及结构化的案例证据。请把它当作检查清单使用，而不是真题的替代品，并且一定要在限时条件下完整写出答案来自测。
1. Geographical Skills: Map Reading and Coordinates | 地理技能：地图阅读与坐标
Grid references are fundamental. A four-figure reference identifies a grid square, while a six-figure reference identifies a specific point inside that square. Always read the easting first and the northing second, and remember the phrase "along the corridor, then up the stairs".
网格坐标是基础技能。四位数坐标定位一个方格，六位数坐标定位方格内的具体点；读数时先读东向值，再读北向值，记住口诀"先沿走廊，再上楼梯"。
A six-figure reference is simply a four-figure reference subdivided into tenths. For example, the four-figure square 3567 contains the six-figure points 351670 to 359679. Marks are lost when candidates reverse the order or estimate to the wrong tenth, so practise estimating tenths rather than guessing whole squares.
六位数坐标就是把四位数方格再等分为十份。例如四位数方格 3567 包含六位数点位 351670 到 359679。把顺序颠倒，或把十分位估错，都会丢分，所以要练习估十分位，而不是粗略猜整个方格。
Direction is expressed either as a compass point or as a three-figure bearing measured clockwise from north. Bearings never have fewer than three digits, so north is 000°, east is 090°, south is 180° and west is 270°. Straight-line distance should be measured with a ruler and converted using the map scale, not estimated by eye.
方向可以用罗盘方位表示，也可以用从正北顺时针量出的三位数方位角表示。方位角必须是三位数，所以正北为 000°，正东为 090°，正南为 180°，正西为 270°。直线距离要用尺子测量，再按地图比例尺换算，不能凭肉眼估算。
Map symbols, spot heights, trig pillars, hachures and layer tinting are all used to describe relief and land use. When a question says "describe the relief", give the height range, the gradient, the shape of the land and the direction of the highest ground, and support each statement with a grid reference.
地图符号、高程点、三角点、晕线和分层设色都用来描述地形与土地利用。当题目要求"描述地形"时，要写出高度范围、坡度、地表形态以及最高地的走向，并用网格坐标支撑每一句陈述。
2. Scale, Gradient and Relief Interpretation | 比例尺、坡度与地形判读
Scale can be shown as a ratio, statement or linear scale. On a 1:50,000 map, 1 cm represents 50,000 cm, or 0.5 km on the ground. On a 1:25,000 map, 1 cm represents only 0.25 km, so the same feature appears twice as large.
比例尺可以用比例式、文字式或直线比例尺表示。在 1:50,000 地图上，1 厘米代表实地 50,000 厘米，即 0.5 公里。在 1:25,000 地图上，1 厘米只代表 0.25 公里，因此同一地物显示的尺寸会大一倍。
When measuring along a curved road or river, place the edge of a strip of paper along the line, mark each bend, then straighten the strip against the linear scale. This method is more reliable than trying to measure a curve with a ruler in one step.
测量弯曲的道路或河流时，可以用纸条边缘沿线路贴合、在每个拐弯处做记号，再把纸条拉直对着直线比例尺读数。这比用尺子一步量曲线可靠得多。
Gradient is calculated by dividing the vertical interval by the horizontal equivalent. Always work in the same unit before dividing, and express the answer as a ratio such as 1:8, or as a percentage or angle where the question demands it.
坡度用垂直高差除以水平距离计算。计算前必须换算成相同单位，答案要写成例如 1:8 的比例形式，或按题目要求写成百分比或角度。
Gradient = Vertical Interval ÷ Horizontal Distance
坡度 = 垂直高差 ÷ 水平距离
Contour lines join points of equal height. Closely spaced contours indicate a steep slope, while widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope. Where contours cross a valley they form a V pointing upstream, and where they cross a ridge they form a V pointing downhill. Describing relief accurately requires combining contour pattern, spot heights and drainage.
等高线连接海拔相同的点。等高线密集表示陡坡，等高线稀疏表示缓坡。等高线穿过河谷时形成指向上游的 V 形，穿过山脊时形成指向下坡的 V 形。准确描述地形需要把等高线形态、高程点和河网结合起来。
3. Data Response Techniques: Graphs, Charts and Statistics | 数据分析技巧：图表与统计
Paper 2 rewards candidates who can describe a pattern, then explain it. A choropleth map uses shading to show density or value, a flow line map shows movement such as migration or trade, and an isoline map joins points of equal value, such as rainfall or temperature.
Paper 2 奖励那些既能描述分布规律、又能解释成因的考生。分级设色图用深浅表示密度或数值，流向图表示迁移或贸易等移动，等值线图连接降雨量、气温等数值相同的点。
A climate graph plots mean monthly temperature as a line and mean monthly precipitation as bars on the same axes. Label the axes with units, state the maximum and minimum, identify the range, and then link the pattern to latitude, altitude, distance from the sea or prevailing winds.
气候图在同一坐标系中用折线表示月平均气温、用柱状表示月平均降水量。要标明轴线单位、写出最高值与最低值、算出年较差，再把这一形态与纬度、海拔、距海远近或盛行风联系起来。
When describing a graph, use the language of change: increase, decrease, peak, fluctuate, plateau, steady. Support every point with figures and units taken directly from the graph, and quote values rather than using vague words such as "a lot" or "many".
描述图表时，要用表示变化的语言：上升、下降、峰值、波动、平稳。每个要点都要用直接来自图表的数据和单位支撑，引用具体数值，不要用"很多""大量"这类模糊词。
Statistical calculations appear regularly. Mean is the total divided by the number of values, median is the middle value when data is ranked, and range is the difference between the highest and lowest values. Percentages and rates of change should always be rounded consistently and labelled with the correct unit.
统计计算经常出现。平均值是总和除以数值个数，中位数是数据排序后位于中间的数值，极差是最大值与最小值的差。百分比和变化率要统一取整，并标注正确的单位。
Comparative questions require balance. If a question asks you to compare two regions, alternate between them in every sentence: "Region A has a density of 300 people per km², whereas Region B has only 25 people per km²."
比较类题目要求平衡。如果题目要求比较两个区域，就要在每一句中交替出现两者："A 区人口密度为每平方公里 300 人，而 B 区只有每平方公里 25 人。"
4. Population: Distribution, Density and Structure | 人口：分布、密度与结构
Population distribution describes where people live; population density measures how closely they are packed. Density is calculated as total population divided by total land area, and is expressed as people per square kilometre (people/km²).
人口分布描述人们住在哪里；人口密度衡量人口聚集的紧密程度。密度等于总人口除以土地总面积，单位是每平方公里人数（人/km²）。
Population Density = Total Population ÷ Total Area
人口密度 = 总人口 ÷ 总面积
Physical factors influencing distribution include relief, climate, soil fertility, water supply and natural hazards. Human factors include employment opportunities, transport links, government policy, political stability and the pull of urban services. Dense areas include river valleys such as the Nile and Ganges, coastal plains and major industrial regions; sparsely populated areas include deserts, polar regions, high mountains and tropical rainforests.
影响人口分布的自然因素包括地形、气候、土壤肥力、水源和自然灾害。人文因素包括就业机会、交通联系、政府政策、政治稳定性和城市服务设施的吸引力。人口稠密区包括尼罗河、恒河等河谷、沿海平原和主要工业区；人口稀疏区包括沙漠、极地、高山和热带雨林。
Population structure is shown by a population pyramid, which plots age groups against the percentage of males and females. A broad base and narrow apex indicate a high birth rate and a youthful population; a narrow base and wide top indicate an ageing population with a long life expectancy.
人口结构用人口金字塔表示，它把年龄段与男女人口百分比对应起来。底部宽、顶端尖表示出生率高、人口年轻化；底部窄、顶部宽表示人口老龄化、预期寿命长。
Dependency ratio and dependency load are useful concepts: a very youthful or very elderly population creates a high dependency ratio, placing pressure on schools, hospitals, pensions and the working population that funds them.
抚养比和抚养负担是很有用的概念：人口过于年轻或过于年老都会造成高抚养比，给学校、医院、养老金以及为其提供资金的劳动人口带来压力。
5. Population Change and Migration | 人口变动与迁移
Natural population change is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate, expressed per 1,000 people per year. When the birth rate exceeds the death rate, natural increase occurs; when the death rate exceeds the birth rate, natural decrease occurs.
人口自然变动是出生率与死亡率之差，以每年每千人为单位表示。出生率高于死亡率时出现自然增长；死亡率高于出生率时出现自然减少。
Natural Increase = Birth Rate − Death Rate
自然增长率 = 出生率 − 死亡率
Total population change also includes net migration. The Demographic Transition Model describes five stages: high fluctuating birth and death rates, early expanding, late expanding, low fluctuating, and a final stage of declining population. Each stage has characteristic pyramids, and Japan and Niger are often used as contrasting examples.
总人口变动还包括净迁移。人口转变模型描述五个阶段：高低波动的出生率与死亡率、早期扩张、晚期扩张、低位波动，以及人口下降的末期阶段。每个阶段都有典型的人口金字塔形态，日本与尼日尔常用于对照举例。
Migration is driven by push factors such as unemployment, drought, conflict and poor services, and pull factors such as higher wages, education, healthcare and family links. Rural-urban migration is the most frequently examined flow, and it should always be analysed in terms of impacts on both the source area and the destination area.
迁移由推力因素和拉力因素驱动。推力因素包括失业、干旱、冲突和公共服务差；拉力因素包括更高工资、教育、医疗和亲属联系。乡村到城市的迁移是考查频率最高的流向，必须同时分析对迁出地和迁入地的影响。
Impacts on destination areas include labour supply, cultural diversity, pressure on housing and informal settlements, and remittance flows back to source areas. A balanced answer discusses both benefits and costs, and names a specific case study with figures.
对迁入地的影响包括劳动力供给、文化多样性、住房压力和棚户区扩张，以及汇回迁出地的侨汇。均衡的答案要同时讨论收益与成本，并写出带数据的具体案例。
6. Settlement: Site, Situation, Function and Land Use | 聚落：区位、职能与土地利用
Site refers to the actual land a settlement is built on, while situation refers to its position relative to surrounding features. Early site factors include water supply, dry-point locations above flood level, defence on a hill or bend in a river, bridging points, fertile farmland and shelter from prevailing winds.
区位（site）指聚落实际建在什么土地上，位置（situation）指它相对于周边地物的位置关系。早期选址因素包括水源、高于洪水位的干燥点、山丘或河流弯曲处的防御条件、架桥点、肥沃农田以及避风条件。
Functions change over time. A settlement may begin as a farming village, develop a market function, then add port, industrial, tourist, residential, administrative or commuter functions. Many settlements are now multi-functional, and land use reflects that mixture.
职能会随时间变化。一个聚落可能最初是农业村落，随后发展出市场职能，再叠加港口、工业、旅游、居住、行政或通勤职能。如今许多聚落是多职能的，土地利用也反映了这种混合。
The Burgess model describes concentric zones: a central business district (CBD) with the highest land values and accessibility, an inner city zone of older housing and industry, outer suburbs, and a rural-urban fringe where land uses compete.
伯吉斯模型描述同心圆地带的分布：地价最高、可达性最好的中央商务区（CBD），老住宅与工业混合的内城地带，外围郊区，以及多种土地利用相互竞争的城市边缘区。
- CBD: high-rise, high land value, offices, retail, transport nodes | 中央商务区：高层建筑、高地价、办公、零售、交通枢纽
- Inner city: terraced housing, older industry, redevelopment | 内城：联排住宅、老工业、更新改造
- Suburbs: semi-detached and detached housing, schools, parks | 郊区：半独立与独立住宅、学校、公园
- Rural-urban fringe: out-of-town retail, airports, golf courses, new housing | 城市边缘区：郊外购物中心、机场、高尔夫球场、新建住宅
When describing land use from a map, always give evidence: street patterns, building density, the size of plots, the presence of green space, and the type of services shown in the key.
根据地图描述土地利用时，一定要给出证据：街道格局、建筑密度、地块大小、绿地是否存在，以及图例中显示的各类服务设施。
7. Urbanisation and Settlement Hierarchy | 城市化与聚落等级体系
Urbanisation is the increasing proportion of a population living in towns and cities. It is caused by rural-urban migration and natural increase in urban areas, and is fastest in low-income countries where employment in agriculture is declining.
城市化是指居住在城镇的人口比例不断上升。它由乡村到城市的迁移和城市地区的自然增长造成，在农业就业比重下降的低收入国家速度最快。
Rapid urban growth produces squatter settlements, congestion, air and water pollution, waste disposal problems and pressure on water supply. Responses include site-and-service schemes, self-help housing, improved public transport, and decentralisation of industry to new towns.
快速城市扩张会产生棚户区、交通拥堵、空气与水污染、垃圾处理问题以及供水压力。应对措施包括"提供宅基地与基础设施"计划、自助建房、改善公共交通，以及把工业分散到新城。
A settlement hierarchy ranks settlements by population size and by the number and range of services they provide. Sphere of influence is the area from which a settlement draws its customers; threshold population is the minimum number of people needed for a service to be profitable.
聚落等级体系按人口规模和所提供服务的数量与种类对聚落进行排序。影响范围（腹地）是聚落吸引顾客的地区；门槛人口是某项服务能够盈利所需的最低人口数量。
- Low-order services: newsagent, post box, primary school, small shop — small threshold | 低级服务：报刊亭、邮筒、小学、小商店——门槛人口低
- High-order services: hospital, university, airport, department store — large threshold | 高级服务：医院、大学、机场、百货商场——门槛人口高
SPACE and range are also used when comparing service provision. Always link hierarchy to threshold and range: the greater the range, the higher the order of the settlement providing the service.
比较服务供给时还会用到服务范围与半径（range）。要把等级体系与门槛人口、服务半径联系起来：服务半径越大，提供该服务的聚落等级越高。
8. The Natural Environment: Plate Tectonics and Landforms | 自然环境：板块构造与地貌
The Earth's crust is divided into plates that move over the mantle. Constructive boundaries occur where plates diverge and new crust is created; destructive boundaries occur where oceanic crust is subducted beneath continental crust; conservative boundaries occur where plates slide past each other.
地壳被划分为若干板块，在软流圈上移动。建设性边界出现在板块张裂、新地壳生成之处；破坏性边界出现在大洋地壳俯冲到大陆地壳之下之处；保守性边界出现在板块相互水平错动之处。
| Boundary | 边界 | Process | 过程 | Landform | 地貌 |
| Constructive | 建设性 | Divergence, rift valley, sea-floor spreading | 张裂、裂谷、海底扩张 | Mid-Atlantic Ridge, shield volcano | 大西洋中脊、盾状火山 |
| Destructive | 破坏性 | Subduction, deep-sea trench, fold mountains | 俯冲、海沟、褶皱山脉 | Andes, composite volcano, earthquake | 安第斯山、复合火山、地震 |
| Conservative | 保守性 | Horizontal sliding, friction release | 水平错动、摩擦释放 | San Andreas Fault, earthquake | 圣安德烈亚斯断层、地震 |
Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter scale, while intensity and damage are described using the Mercalli scale. Primary effects include buildings collapsing and roads cracking; secondary effects include fires, landslides, tsunamis, disease and homelessness.
地震震级用里氏震级衡量，烈度与破坏程度则用麦加利烈度表描述。一次影响包括建筑倒塌、道路开裂；二次影响包括火灾、滑坡、海啸、疾病与无家可归。
Management strategies differ between high-income and low-income countries. Prediction, hazard mapping, building regulations, education and evacuation drills reduce risk, whereas a lack of money, weak enforcement and poor communication increase vulnerability.
高收入国家与低收入国家的管理策略不同。预测、灾害区划、建筑规范、教育宣传和疏散演练能降低风险；而资金不足、执法不严和通讯落后会加剧脆弱性。
9. Rivers, Coasts and Weather Processes | 河流、海岸与天气过程
River erosion occurs through hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution, while transportation occurs by traction, saltation, suspension and solution. These processes are controlled by discharge, velocity, gradient and load.
河流侵蚀包括水力作用、磨蚀、磨圆和溶蚀，搬运方式包括推移、跃移、悬移和溶运。这些过程受流量、流速、坡度和搬运物控制。
Key landforms include V-shaped valleys, waterfalls and gorges in the upper course, meanders, oxbow lakes and floodplains in the middle course, and levees, deltas and estuaries in the lower course. Floods are caused by prolonged rainfall, snowmelt, impermeable rock, deforestation, urbanisation and steep relief.
主要地貌包括上游的 V 形谷、瀑布与峡谷，中游的曲流、牛轭湖与河漫滩，下游的天然堤、三角洲与河口湾。洪水的成因包括持续降雨、融雪、不透水岩层、森林砍伐、城市化和陡峭地形。
Coastal processes include longshore drift, which moves sediment along the coast in the direction of the prevailing wind. Constructive waves are low and gentle and build beaches; destructive waves are high and frequent and erode the coast.
海岸过程包括沿岸漂移，它使沉积物沿盛行风方向沿岸移动。建设性波浪低而平缓，会堆积海滩；破坏性波浪高而频繁，会侵蚀海岸。
Landforms of erosion include headlands, cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Landforms of deposition include beaches, spits, bars and tombolos. Hard engineering such as sea walls, groynes and rock armour is expensive but immediate; soft engineering such as beach nourishment, dune regeneration and managed retreat works with natural processes.
侵蚀地貌包括海岬、海崖、海蚀平台、海蚀洞、海蚀拱、海蚀柱与海蚀墩。堆积地貌包括海滩、沙嘴、沙坝与连岛沙洲。海堤、丁坝、抛石护岸等硬工程成本高但见效快；人工补沙、沙丘修复、退让管理等软工程顺应自然过程。
10. Weather, Climate and Ecosystems | 天气、气候与生态系统
Weather describes short-term atmospheric conditions, while climate describes the average pattern over at least thirty years. Elements include temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, sunshine and air pressure.
天气描述短时间的大气状况，气候描述至少三十年的平均状况。要素包括气温、降水、湿度、风速与风向、云量、日照和气压。
Instruments must be quoted accurately: the Stevenson screen houses thermometers, a rain gauge measures precipitation, a barometer measures air pressure, an anemometer measures wind speed and a wind vane shows wind direction. Sites must be open, away from buildings and above ground level.
仪器必须准确引用：史蒂文森百叶箱放置温度计，雨量计测降水，气压计测气压，风速计测风速，风向标示风向。观测点要开阔、远离建筑物并离地一定高度。
Rainfall types are convectional, relief (orographic) and frontal. Convectional rainfall is common in the tropics after intense surface heating, relief rainfall forms on windward slopes with a rain shadow to leeward, and frontal rainfall forms where warm and cold air masses meet.
降雨类型包括对流雨、地形雨和锋面雨。对流雨常见于地表强烈受热后的热带地区；地形雨形成于迎风坡，背风坡出现雨影；锋面雨形成于暖气团与冷气团相遇处。
Ecosystems are defined by climate, soil, vegetation and animal life. Tropical rainforests show high biodiversity, nutrient-poor soils, rapid nutrient cycling and layered structure, while hot deserts show xerophytic adaptations such as thick stems, spines and deep roots.
生态系统由气候、土壤、植被和动物共同界定。热带雨林生物多样性高、土壤贫瘠、养分循环快、结构分层；热带沙漠中的植物具有旱生适应，如粗茎、针刺和深根。
Human activity alters ecosystems through deforestation, overgrazing, mining and urban expansion. Deforestation reduces interception and transpiration, increases runoff and soil erosion, and reduces biodiversity and carbon storage.
人类活动通过森林砍伐、过度放牧、采矿和城市扩张改变生态系统。森林减少会降低截留与蒸腾，增加径流与土壤侵蚀，并减少生物多样性与碳储存。
11. Economic Development: Agriculture, Industry and Tourism | 经济发展：农业、工业与旅游
Employment structure is usually divided into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors. As economies develop, the proportion of workers in the primary sector falls and the tertiary sector grows, a pattern explained by the Clarke-Fisher model.
就业结构通常分为第一、第二、第三和第四产业。随着经济发展，第一产业就业比重下降、第三产业上升，这一规律可用克拉克-费雪模型解释。
Farming systems are classified as commercial or subsistence, intensive or extensive, and arable, pastoral or mixed. Inputs, processes and outputs can be shown as a system diagram, and physical inputs such as climate and relief interact with human inputs such as capital, labour, machinery and government subsidies.
农业系统可分为商业或自给、集约或粗放、种植业、畜牧业或混合农业。投入、过程与产出可用系统图表示，气候、地形等自然投入与资本、劳动力、机械和政府补贴等人文投入相互作用。
Industry is influenced by raw materials, power, transport, labour, markets and government policy. Manufacturing may be located near the market to reduce transport costs, or in areas offering incentives. Industrial change often brings deindustrialisation in older industrial regions and growth in service and high-technology employment elsewhere.
工业区位受原料、动力、交通、劳动力、市场和政府政策影响。制造业可能靠近市场以降低运费，或落在提供优惠政策的地区。工业变化常在老工业区带来去工业化，而在其他地区带来服务业与高技术就业的增长。
Tourism depends on attractions, accessibility, infrastructure, climate and safety. Benefits include employment, foreign currency, infrastructure improvement and conservation funding; costs include
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