📚 IGCSE CCEA Psychology: Core Knowledge Points | IGCSE CCEA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide summarises the essential knowledge points for the IGCSE CCEA Psychology course. It covers research methods, biological foundations, memory, development, attachment, social influence, mental health, sleep, and ethical issues. Each section presents key terms and explanations in paired English and Chinese paragraphs to support bilingual revision.
本复习指南梳理了 IGCSE CCEA 心理学课程的核心知识点，涵盖研究方法、生物基础、记忆、发展、依恋、社会影响、心理健康、睡眠和伦理问题。每个部分用中英对照的段落呈现关键术语和解释，帮助双语复习。
1. What is Psychology | 心理学的定义
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It aims to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes change human and animal behaviour. Psychologists use objective methods such as experiments, observations, interviews, and questionnaires to collect data.
心理学是对行为和心智活动的科学研究，旨在描述、解释、预测并有时改变人类和动物的行为。心理学家使用实验、观察、访谈和问卷等客观方法收集数据。
Unlike everyday opinions, psychology relies on evidence and follows systematic procedures. It is divided into fields such as cognitive, biological, developmental, social, and clinical psychology. In the IGCSE CCEA course, students explore these fields through key studies and applied examples.
与日常观点不同，心理学依赖证据并遵循系统化程序。它分为认知心理学、生物心理学、发展心理学、社会心理学和临床心理学等领域。在 IGCSE CCEA 课程中，学生通过关键研究和应用实例探索这些领域。
2. Research Methods | 研究方法
Psychological research often uses experiments, surveys, observations, case studies, and correlations. Experiments manipulate an independent variable (IV) to measure its effect on a dependent variable (DV). Surveys collect self-reported data from a large sample, while observations record behaviour in natural or controlled settings.
心理学研究常使用实验、调查、观察、个案研究和相关研究。实验操纵自变量（IV）以测量其对因变量（DV）的影响。调查从大样本收集自我报告数据，观察则记录自然或控制情境中的行为。
- Experiment: high control, can identify cause and effect.
- Survey: collects large amounts of data quickly, but relies on self-report.
- Observation: naturalistic or structured; may show real behaviour.
- Case study: in-depth investigation of an individual or small group.
- 实验：控制程度高，可以确定因果关系。
- 调查：快速收集大量数据，但依赖自我报告。
- 观察：自然观察或结构化观察；可以显示真实行为。
- 个案研究：对个人或小群体进行深入调查。
3. Experimental Design and Variables | 实验设计与变量
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to conditions. The three main designs are independent measures, repeated measures, and matched pairs. Independent measures use different participants in each condition, while repeated measures use the same participants in all conditions.
实验设计指参与者如何被分配到不同条件。三种主要设计是独立组设计、重复测量设计和配对组设计。独立组设计在每个条件下使用不同的参与者，重复测量设计则在所有条件下使用相同的参与者。
Extraneous variables are any variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. Researchers control them to increase validity. For example, standardised instructions, random allocation, and counterbalancing reduce order effects and participant variables.
无关变量是除自变量外可能影响因变量的任何变量。研究者控制它们以提高效度。例如，标准化指导语、随机分配和平衡顺序可以减少顺序效应和参与者变量。
| Design | Advantage | Disadvantage |
| Independent measures | No order effects | Participant variables may differ |
| Repeated measures | Controls participant variables | Order effects may occur |
| Matched pairs | Reduces participant variables and order effects | Time-consuming to match participants |
4. Biological Foundations of Behaviour | 行为的生物基础
The biological approach focuses on how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genes influence behaviour. Neurons are nerve cells that transmit information through electrical impulses and chemical signals called neurotransmitters. Key neurotransmitters include serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline.
生物学取向关注大脑、神经系统、激素和基因如何影响行为。神经元是神经细胞，通过电冲动和称为神经递质的化学信号传递信息。关键的神经递质包括血清素、多巴胺和肾上腺素。
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Brain areas such as the frontal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala are linked to functions like decision-making, memory, and emotion.
中枢神经系统（CNS）由大脑和脊髓组成，外周神经系统将中枢神经系统与身体其他部分连接起来。额叶、海马体和杏仁核等脑区与决策、记忆和情绪等功能相关。
5. Memory and Forgetting | 记忆与遗忘
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. The multi-store model describes three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows through attention and rehearsal from one store to the next.
记忆是对信息进行编码、存储和提取的过程。多存储模型描述了三种存储：感觉记忆、短期记忆（STM）和长期记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意和复述从一个存储流向下一个存储。
nd 18 to 30 seconds without rehearsal. Long-term memory has a potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Forgetting can occur because of decay, displacement, or retrieval failure.
短期记忆的容量有限，约为 7±2 个项目，在不复述的情况下大约持续 18 到 30 秒。长期记忆的容量和持续时间可能无限。遗忘可能因衰退、替代或提取失败而发生。
STM capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 items | STM duration ≈ 18-30 seconds
6. Cognitive Development | 认知发展
Cognitive development refers to how thinking, problem-solving, and understanding change with age. Piaget proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Each stage is characterised by distinct cognitive abilities.
认知发展指思维、问题解决和理解能力如何随年龄变化。皮亚杰提出了四个阶段：感知运动阶段、前运算阶段、具体运算阶段和形式运算阶段。每个阶段都有独特的认知能力。
In the pre-operational stage, children are egocentric and struggle with conservation tasks. By the concrete operational stage, they can conserve, classify, and think logically about concrete objects. Formal operational thinking involves abstract reasoning and hypothesis testing.
在前运算阶段，儿童具有自我中心倾向，并且在守恒任务中存在困难。到具体运算阶段，他们能够守恒、分类并对具体物体进行逻辑思考。形式运算思维涉及抽象推理和假设检验。
7. Attachment and Early Experience | 依恋与早期经验
Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver. Bowlby argued that attachment is innate and has an evolutionary survival function. Ainsworth identified secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment types using the Strange Situation procedure.
依恋是婴儿与照护者之间强烈的情感纽带。鲍尔比认为依恋是天生的，并具有进化上的生存功能。安斯沃思使用陌生情境程序识别出安全型、不安全回避型和不安全反抗型依恋类型。
Early attachment experiences can influence later relationships and emotional development. Securely attached children tend to be more confident and socially competent, while insecure attachment may be linked to anxiety or relationship difficulties.
早期依恋经验会影响后来的关系和情绪发展。安全依恋的儿童往往更自信、社交能力更强，而不安全依恋可能与焦虑或人际关系困难有关。
8. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Social influence examines how individual behaviour is affected by groups and authority figures. Conformity is changing one's behaviour or beliefs to match the group. Asch's line-judging experiment showed that many participants conformed to an incorrect majority at least once.
社会影响研究个体行为如何受群体和权威人物影响。从众是改变自己的行为或信念以匹配群体。阿希的线段判断实验表明，许多参与者至少一次顺从了错误的多数意见。
Obedience is following direct commands from an authority figure. Milgram's electric shock study found that 65% of participants continued to the maximum voltage, demonstrating high obedience in certain situations. Both conformity and obedience are influenced by group size, unanimity, proximity, and perceived legitimacy.
服从是遵循权威人物直接命令的行为。米尔格拉姆的电击实验发现 65% 的参与者继续到最大电压，显示在某些情境下服从程度很高。从众和服从都受群体规模、一致性、接近性和感知合法性的影响。
9. Mental Health and Treatment | 心理健康与治疗
Mental health refers to psychological well-being and the ability to cope with daily life. Common mental health problems include depression, anxiety disorders, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Symptoms may involve persistent low mood, excessive worry, panic attacks, or intrusive thoughts.
心理健康指心理幸福感和应对日常生活的能力。常见的心理健康问题包括抑郁症、焦虑症、恐惧症和强迫症。症状可能涉及持续情绪低落、过度担忧、惊恐发作或侵入性想法。
Treatments include biological therapies such as medication and psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). CBT helps individuals identify and change unhelpful thinking patterns, while drug treatments aim to restore chemical balance in the brain.
治疗方法包括药物等生物疗法和认知行为疗法（CBT）等心理疗法。CBT 帮助个体识别并改变无益的思维模式，而药物治疗旨在恢复大脑中的化学平衡。
10. Sleep and Dreaming | 睡眠与做梦
Sleep occurs in repeated cycles of about 90 minutes, including non-REM and REM stages. REM sleep is associated with rapid eye movement, vivid dreaming, and brain activity similar to wakefulness. Deep non-REM sleep is important for physical restoration and memory consolidation.
睡眠以约 90 分钟的周期重复出现，包括非快速眼动和快速眼动阶段。快速眼动睡眠与眼球快速运动、生动梦境和类似于清醒时的大脑活动相关。深度非快速眼动睡眠对生理恢复和记忆巩固很重要。
Theories of dreaming include the activation-synthesis model, which suggests dreams arise from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity. Psychoanalytic theory views dreams as expressions of unconscious wishes. Sleep deprivation can impair attention, mood, and immune function.
梦境理论包括激活-整合模型，该模型认为梦源于大脑试图对随机神经活动赋予意义。精神分析理论认为梦是无意识愿望的表达。睡眠剥夺会损害注意力、情绪和免疫功能。
11. Ethical Issues in Research | 研究中的伦理问题
Psychologists must follow ethical guidelines to protect participants. Key principles include informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, protection from harm, and debriefing. Ethical committees review research proposals to ensure these standards are met.
心理学家必须遵循伦理准则以保护参与者。关键原则包括知情同意、退出权利、保密、避免伤害和事后解释。伦理委员会审查研究提案以确保符合这些标准。
Some classic studies, such as Milgram's obedience experiment, raised ethical concerns because participants experienced distress and were deceived. Modern researchers must balance the scientific value of a study with the dignity and welfare of participants.
一些经典研究，如米尔格拉姆的服从实验，引发了伦理争议，因为参与者经历了痛苦并被欺骗。现代研究者必须在研究的科学价值与参与者的尊严和福利之间取得平衡。
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