📚 IGCSE WJEC Sociology: Core Knowledge Points | IGCSE WJEC 社会学：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide summarises the core knowledge points for the IGCSE WJEC Sociology specification. It is designed to help students review key concepts, theories, and debates across culture, socialisation, family, education, stratification, crime, research methods, and power. Use the paired English and Chinese explanations to build both subject understanding and academic vocabulary.
本复习指南梳理 IGCSE WJEC 社会学的核心知识点，涵盖文化、社会化、家庭、教育、社会分层、犯罪、研究方法与权力等主题。中英文对照讲解旨在帮助考生同时提升学科理解与学术术语运用能力。
1. Key Sociological Concepts: Culture, Norms and Values | 核心社会学概念：文化、规范与价值观
Sociology studies how individuals and groups interact within society. Culture refers to the whole way of life of a group, including language, beliefs, customs, and material objects. Norms are unwritten rules that guide everyday behaviour, such as queuing or saying 'thank you'. Values are broader beliefs about what is right and desirable, such as equality or respect for life. These concepts help explain why behaviour differs across time and place.
社会学研究个人与群体在社会中的互动。文化指一个群体的整体生活方式，包括语言、信仰、习俗和物质对象。规范是指导日常行为的非正式规则，例如排队或说 "谢谢"。价值观是对正确与可欲之事的更广泛信念，如平等或尊重生命。这些概念有助于解释行为为何会随时间和地点而变化。
Roles are the expected behaviours attached to a social position, such as a student or parent. Identity is how individuals see themselves and are seen by others, often shaped by gender, class, ethnicity, and age. Sociologists distinguish between ascribed status, which is given at birth, and achieved status, which is gained through effort.
角色是附着于社会位置的预期行为，例如学生或父母。身份是个体如何看待自己以及如何被他人看待，常受性别、阶级、种族和年龄影响。社会学家区分先赋地位（出生即获得）与自致地位（通过努力获得）。
2. Socialisation, Social Control and Identity Formation | 社会化、社会控制与身份形成
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family during early childhood, where children learn language, basic norms, and emotional bonds. Secondary socialisation takes place through agencies such as schools, peer groups, the media, and religion. Through these agencies, individuals internalise values and develop a sense of self.
社会化是个体学习所在社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在童年早期的家庭中，儿童在此学习语言、基本规范和情感纽带。次级社会化通过学校、同伴群体、媒体和宗教等机构进行。通过这些机构，个体内化价值观并形成自我意识。
Social control refers to the mechanisms society uses to ensure conformity. Formal social control includes laws, police, courts, and prisons. Informal social control operates through family, friends, and community reactions such as praise, shame, or exclusion. Socialisation and social control together maintain social order.
社会控制指社会用来确保服从的机制。正式社会控制包括法律、警察、法院和监狱。非正式社会控制通过家庭、朋友和社区反应（如赞扬、羞耻或排斥）起作用。社会化与社会控制共同维持社会秩序。
Identity is both personal and social. Social identity links individuals to groups based on class, gender, ethnicity, nationality, or subculture. Sociologists study how identities are negotiated, resisted, and changed, especially in modern diverse societies.
身份既是个人的也是社会的。社会身份将个人与基于阶级、性别、种族、民族或亚文化的群体联系起来。社会学家研究在现代多元社会中身份如何被协商、抵制和改变。
3. Families and Households: Forms and Functions | 家庭与住户：形式与功能
A family is a group of people connected by kinship, marriage, or co-residence, while a household may consist of one person or unrelated people living together. Common family forms include the nuclear family (parents and dependent children), the extended family (relatives beyond the nuclear unit), lone-parent families, reconstituted families (stepfamilies), and same-sex families. WJEC questions often ask you to compare these types and explain why family diversity has increased.
家庭是通过亲属关系、婚姻或共同居住而联系在一起的群体，而住户可能由一个人或共同居住的无亲属关系者组成。常见家庭形式包括核心家庭（父母及受抚养子女）、扩展家庭（超出核心单元的亲属）、单亲家庭、重组家庭（继亲家庭）和同性家庭。WJEC 考题常要求比较这些类型并解释家庭多样性为何增加。
Functionalists such as Murdock argue that the family performs essential functions: sexual regulation, reproduction, economic support, and socialisation. Parsons later focused on two functions of the modern nuclear family: primary socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult personalities, often called the 'warm bath' theory. Critics note that functionalism ignores family conflict and diversity.
默多克等功能主义者认为家庭发挥着基本功能：性规范、生育、经济支持和社会化。帕森斯后来强调现代核心家庭的两项功能：儿童的初级社会化和成人人格的稳定，常被称为
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