📚 IB OPH SB3 Thermal Physics Student Cards | IB OPH SB3 热学学生卡片
This set of IB Physics revision cards covers the core ideas in Topic 3: Thermal Physics. Use these cards to review temperature, heat, internal energy, specific heat capacity, latent heat, thermal energy transfer, black-body radiation, ideal gases, and the first law of thermodynamics.
本组 IB 物理复习卡片覆盖主题三：热学的核心概念。使用这些卡片复习温度、热量、内能、比热容、潜热、热传递、黑体辐射、理想气体以及热力学第一定律。
1. Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium | 温度与热平衡
Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. It is a scalar quantity and is measured in kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (°C).
温度是物质中粒子平均随机动能的量度。它是标量，单位为开尔文（K）或摄氏度（°C）。
Two objects are in thermal equilibrium when they are at the same temperature and there is no net heat transfer between them.
当两个物体温度相同且彼此之间没有净热量传递时，它们就处于热平衡状态。
To convert between Celsius and kelvin, use the equation below. Always use kelvin when applying gas laws or kinetic-energy equations.
摄氏度与开尔文的换算使用下面的公式。在应用气体定律或动能方程时，务必使用开尔文温标。
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
2. Heat and Internal Energy | 热量与内能
Heat is energy transferred between objects or systems because of a temperature difference. It is not a property stored inside an object; it is a process quantity.
热量是由于温度差而在物体或系统之间传递的能量。它不是储存在物体内部的属性，而是一个过程量。
Internal energy U is the total kinetic energy plus the total potential energy of all particles in a system. Kinetic energy comes from random particle motion, while potential energy comes from intermolecular forces.
内能 U 是系统中所有粒子动能与势能的总和。动能来自粒子的随机运动，势能来自分子间作用力。
During a phase change at constant temperature, internal energy changes because the potential energy of the particles changes, while the temperature remains constant.
在恒定温度下发生相变时，内能会改变，因为粒子的势能发生变化，但温度保持不变。
3. Specific Heat Capacity | 比热容
Specific heat capacity c is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K without a change of state. Its unit is J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹.
比热容 c 是使 1 kg 物质在不发生状态变化的情况下温度升高 1 K 所需的能量。其单位为 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹。
The greater the specific heat capacity of a material, the more energy is needed to produce the same temperature rise.
物质的比热容越大，产生相同温度升高所需的能量就越多。
Q = mcΔT
In a calorimetry experiment, the energy lost by hotter objects equals the energy gained by cooler objects if no energy is lost to the surroundings.
在量热实验中，如果没有能量损失到周围环境，高温物体放出的能量等于低温物体吸收的能量。
4. Specific Latent Heat | 比潜热
Specific latent heat L is the energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of a substance without changing its temperature. Its unit is J kg⁻¹.
比潜热 L 是使 1 kg 物质在不改变温度的情况下改变状态所需的能量。其单位为 J kg⁻¹。
The latent heat of fusion refers to melting or freezing, while the latent heat of vaporisation refers to boiling or condensing.
熔化潜热指熔化或凝固过程，汽化潜热指沸腾或凝结过程。
Q = mL
The latent heat of vaporisation is usually much larger than the latent heat of fusion because separating particles to form a gas requires much more work than weakening solid bonds to form a liquid.
汽化潜热通常远大于熔化潜热，因为将粒子完全分离形成气体所需做的功远大于减弱固体键合形成液体所需做的功。
5. Methods of Thermal Energy Transfer | 热传递方式
Conduction occurs mainly in solids when vibrating particles pass kinetic energy to neighbouring particles. In metals, free electrons also carry energy quickly through the lattice.
传导主要发生在固体中，振动粒子将动能传递给相邻粒子。在金属中，自由电子还可以快速穿过晶格携带能量。
Convection occurs in fluids when warmer, less dense regions rise and cooler, denser regions sink, forming a circulation current.
对流发生在流体中，较热、密度较小的区域上升，较冷、密度较大的区域下沉，形成循环流动。
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. It does not require a medium and can occur in a vacuum.
辐射是通过电磁波传递能量。它不需要介质，可以在真空中发生。
| Method 方式 | Medium
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