📚 Complete Physics: Core Concepts for A-Level and IGCSE Students | 完整物理核心概念总复习
This revision guide covers the essential topics in high-school physics, from mechanics and waves to electricity, thermal physics, and modern physics. It is designed for students preparing for A-Level, IGCSE, AP, or equivalent international examinations. Each section pairs a concise explanation in English with a Chinese translation to strengthen conceptual understanding and bilingual terminology.
本复习指南涵盖高中物理的核心主题，从力学、波动到电学、热物理和现代物理。它专为准备 A-Level、IGCSE、AP 或同等国际考试的学生设计。每一节都配有简明的英文解释和对应的中文翻译，以强化概念理解和双语术语。
1. Mechanics: Kinematics and Newton's Laws | 力学：运动学与牛顿定律
Kinematics describes motion using displacement, velocity, and acceleration without considering forces. For constant acceleration, the key equations are:
运动学使用位移、速度和加速度描述运动，而不考虑力。对于匀加速运动，关键方程如下：
v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as, s = ½(u + v)t
Newton' ect remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. Newton's Second Law links force, mass, and acceleration: F = ma. Newton's Third Law says every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
牛顿第一定律指出，除非受到净外力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律将力、质量和加速度联系起来：F = ma。牛顿第三定律指出，每一个作用力都有一个大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。
2. Energy, Work and Power | 能量、功与功率
force: W = Fd cosθ. Energy is the capacity to do work and is conserved in a closed system.
当力使物体沿力的方向移动时，就做了功：W = Fd cosθ。能量是做功的能力，在封闭系统中能量守恒。
and gravitational potential energy is GPE = mgh. Power is the rate of doing work: P = W/t.
动能是 KE = ½mv²，重力势能是 GPE = mgh。功率是做功的速率：P = W/t。
3. Momentum and Collisions | 动量与碰撞
plosions provided no external force acts. Impulse equals the change in momentum: FΔt = Δp.
动量 p = mv 在没有外力作用时，在所有碰撞和爆炸中守恒。冲量等于动量的变化：FΔt = Δp。
Elastic collisions conserve both momentum and kinetic energy; inelastic collisions conserve momentum only.
弹性碰撞同时守恒动量和动能；非弹性碰撞只守恒动量。
4. Circular Motion and Gravitation | 圆周运动与万有引力
irection changes. Centripetal acceleration is a = v²/r and centripetal force is F = mv²/r.
做匀速圆周运动的物体速率不变但速度改变，因为方向在变化。向心加速度为 a = v²/r，向心力为 F = mv²/r。
Newton' between two masses. Gravitational field strength at a distance r from mass M is g = GM/r².
牛顿万有引力定律 F = Gm₁m₂/r² 描述两个质量之间的吸引力。距离质量 M 为 r 处的引力场强度为 g = GM/r²。
5. Waves: Properties and Interference | 波动：特性与干涉
fλ relates speed, frequency, and wavelength. Transverse waves (e.g., light) oscillate perpendicular to propagation; longitudinal waves (e.g., sound) oscillate parallel.
波传递能量而不传递物质。波动方程 v = fλ 联系速度、频率和波长。横波（如光）的振动方向与传播方向垂直；纵波（如声）的振动方向与传播方向平行。
Superposition causes constructive interference when the path difference is nλ and destructive interference when the path difference is (n + ½)λ.
叠加原理导致当程差为 nλ 时发生相长干涉，当程差为 (n + ½)λ 时发生相消干涉。
6. Electricity: Current, Voltage and Resistance | 电学：电流、电压与电阻
low of charge. Potential difference V = W/Q is the energy transferred per unit charge. Ohm's law V = IR defines resistance.
电流 I = ΔQ/Δt 是电荷流动的速率。电势差 V = W/Q 是单位电荷转移的能量。欧姆定律 V = IR 定义电阻。
s resistance to geometry: R = ρL/A. Power dissipated in a resistor is P = VI = I²R = V²/R.
电阻率 ρ 将电阻与几何形状联系起来：R = ρL/A。电阻消耗的功率为 P = VI = I²R = V²/R。
7. Circuits and Potential Dividers | 电路与分压器
ave the same voltage across branches; total resistance is given by 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ...
串联电路中所有组件电流相同；总电阻为 R = R₁ + R₂ + ...，电势差相加。并联电路各支路电压相同；总电阻由 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ... 给出。
A potential divider uses two resistors to split voltage: Vout = Vin × R₂/(R₁ + R₂). It is widely used in sensor circuits.
分压器使用两个电阻分割电压：Vout = Vin × R₂/(R₁ + R₂)。它广泛用于传感器电路。
8. Thermal Physics and Ideal Gases | 热物理与理想气体
Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles. Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of molecules. Heat is energy transferred due to a temperature difference.
温度与粒子的平均动能成正比。内能是分子动能和势能的总和。热量是由于温度差而转移的能量。
re, volume, and temperature. The Boltzmann constant k relates molecular energy to temperature: Ek = (3/2)kT for a monatomic gas.
理想气体定律 pV = nRT 联系压强、体积和温度。玻尔兹曼常数 k 将分子能量与温度联系起来：单原子气体的 Ek = (3/2)kT。
9. Fields: Electric and Magnetic | 电场与磁场
tween parallel plates it is E = V/d. Electric potential around a point charge is V = kQ/r.
对于点电荷，电场强度为 E = F/q；对于平行板之间的匀强电场，E = V/d。点电荷周围的电势为 V = kQ/r。
moving charge is F = qvB sinθ. The force on a current-carrying conductor is F = BIL sinθ.
运动电荷所受的磁力为 F = qvB sinθ。载流导体所受的力为 F = BIL sinθ。
10. Quantum Physics and Atomic Structure | 量子物理与原子结构
lectrons from a metal when the photon energy exceeds the work function φ: hf = φ + KE_max.
光子的能量为 E = hf。光电效应表明，当光子能量大于逸出功 φ 时，光可以从金属中打出电子：hf = φ + KE_max。
e. Electrons transition between levels by absorbing or emitting photons of energy ΔE = hf.
原子的能级是分立的。电子通过吸收或发射能量为 ΔE = hf 的光子在能级之间跃迁。
11. Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity | 核物理与放射性
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Atomic number Z is the number of protons; mass number A is the total number of nucleons. Isotopes have the same Z but different A.
原子核包含质子和中子。原子序数 Z 是质子数；质量数 A 是核子总数。同位素具有相同的 Z 但不同的 A。
Radioactive decay follows N = N₀e−λt. Half-life T₁/₂ = ln2/λ is the time for half the nuclei to decay. Activity is A = λN.
放射性衰变遵循 N = N₀e−λt。半衰期 T₁/₂ = ln2/λ 是半数原子核衰变所需的时间。活度为 A = λN。
12. Practical Skills and Data Analysis | 实验技能与数据分析
strument precision; percentage uncertainty = (absolute uncertainty / measured value) × 100%.
实验需要准确度、精密度和不确定度估算。绝对不确定度是最小分度或仪器精度；百分不确定度 = (绝对不确定度 / 测量值) × 100%。
Graphs should use best-fit lines, and gradient/intercept calculations often give physical quantities. Systematic errors shift readings consistently, while random errors scatter results.
图表应使用最佳拟合线，斜率和截距的计算通常给出物理量。系统误差使读数始终偏移，而随机误差使结果分散。
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