📚 IB Chemistry HL Study Guide | IB 化学高级水平学习指南
This guide summarises the core and AHL content for IB Chemistry HL. It includes key definitions, formulae, and common pitfalls to support revision for Papers 1 and 2 and the internal assessment.
本指南总结 IB 化学高级水平核心与高阶内容。它包含关键定义、公式和常见易错点，帮助备考 Paper 1、Paper 2 以及内部评估。
1. Stoichiometric Relationships | 化学计量关系
The mole relates amount to number of particles via Avogadro' ). Use n = m/M and c = n/V to convert mass, molar mass, solution volume and concentration.
摩尔通过阿伏伽德罗常数（6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹）将物质的量与粒子数联系起来。使用 n = m/M 和 c = n/V 在质量、摩尔质量、溶液体积和浓度之间换算。
retical yield, and percentage yield equals actual yield divided by theoretical yield × 100%.
经验式和分子式可由燃烧数据或百分组成求得。限量试剂决定理论产量，产率等于实际产量除以理论产量再乘 100%。
2. Atomic Structure | 原子结构
ion spectrum provides evidence for quantised energy levels described by E = hν and c = λν.
原子包含质子、中子和电子。同位素的中子数不同，质谱可以测定相对原子质量。氢原子发射光谱为量子化能级提供证据，可用 E = hν 和 c = λν 描述。
Electron configurations follow the Aufbau principle, Hund's rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. For HL you need configurations up to 4f and understand ionisation energy evidence for sublevels.
电子排布遵循构造原理、洪特规则和泡利不相容原理。高级水平需要掌握到 4f 的电子排布，并理解电离能作为亚层存在的证据。
3. Periodicity | 周期性
Periodic trends include atomic radius, ionic radius, first ionisation energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. Across a period effective nuclear charge increases, while down a group shielding increases.
周期律涵盖原子半径、离子半径、第一电离能、电子亲和性和电负性。同一周期有效核电荷增加，同一族屏蔽效应增加。
Oxides range from acidic (non-metal oxides such as SO₂, CO₂) to basic (metal oxides such as Na₂O) and amphoteric (Al₂O₃). Transition metals form coloured complexes and variable oxidation states.
氧化物从酸性（非金属氧化物如 SO₂、CO₂）到碱性（金属氧化物如 Na₂O）和两性（Al₂O₃）不等。过渡金属形成有色配合物并表现出可变氧化态。
4. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Ionic, covalent and metallic bonding can be explained by electrostatic attractions and electron sharing or delocalisation. VSEPR theory predicts shapes such as linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal and octahedral.
离子键、共价键和金属键可通过静电吸引和电子共用或离域来解释。VSEPR 理论可以预测线性、三角平面、四面体、三角双锥和八面体等形状。
Polarity arises from electronegativity differences, and intermolecular forces include London dispersion, dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonding. HL also covers σ and π bonds, hybridisation (sp, sp², sp³) and resonance structures.
极性源于电负性差异，分子间作用力包括伦敦色散力、偶极-偶极力和氢键。高级水平还学习 σ 键和 π 键、杂化（sp、sp²、sp³）以及共振结构。
5. Energetics and Thermochemistry | 能量学与热化学
Enthalpy change ΔH is heat transferred at constant pressure. Hess's law states that enthalpy change is independent of route. Standard enthalpy changes of formation, combustion and neutralisation can be combined.
焓变 ΔH 是恒压下传递的热量。赫斯定律指出焓变与路径无关。标准生成焓、燃烧焓和中和焓可以进行组合计算。
H − TΔS determine spontaneity: a reaction is spontaneous when ΔG < 0. For HL you must calculate ΔS using standard molar entropies and discuss temperature dependence.
熵 ΔS 和吉布斯自由能 ΔG = ΔH − TΔS 决定自发性：当
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