📚 Employment and Unemployment | 就业与失业
Employment and unemployment sit at the heart of any economy. When people have jobs, they earn income, spend on goods and services, and contribute to national output. High unemployment, by contrast, signals wasted resources, lower living standards and serious social strain. For IGCSE Economics students, grasping the definitions, measurement, types, costs and policies related to unemployment is essential for understanding how governments try to keep economies stable and growing.
就业与失业是任何经济体的核心议题。人们有工作就能获得收入、购买商品与服务，并为国民产出作出贡献。相反，高失业率意味着资源浪费、生活水平下降和严重的社会压力。对 IGCSE 经济学的学生来说，理解失业的定义、衡量方式、类型、代价以及相关政策，是理解政府如何维持经济稳定与增长的关键。
1. Defining Employment and Unemployment | 就业与失业的定义
In economics, a person is employed if they are of working age, willing and able to work, and currently doing work for pay or profit. This includes full-time, part-time and self-employed individuals. Unemployment refers to people of working age who are without a job, actively seeking work and available to start immediately. Those who are not working and not looking for work—such as full-time students, retirees or discouraged workers—are classified as economically inactive and are not part of the labour force.
在经济学中，一个人只要处于工作年龄、愿意并能够工作，且目前正在从事有报酬的工作，就被视为就业。这包括全职、兼职和自雇人士。失业指的是处于工作年龄、没有工作、正在积极寻找工作并且可以立即开始工作的人。那些既不工作也不找工作的人——如全日制学生、退休人员或丧失信心的劳动者——被归为经济不活跃人口，不计入劳动力。
oyment rate is the percentage of the labour force that is jobless but actively seeking work. Understanding this definition is the first step to analysing labour market data.
劳动力（也称工作人口）是就业人口与失业人口的总和。一个简单的关系是：劳动力 = 就业人数 + 失业人数。失业率指劳动力中无工作但正在积极寻找工作的人所占的百分比。理解这一定义是分析劳动力市场数据的第一步。
Unemployment rate = (Number of unemployed ÷ Labour force) × 100
2. Measuring Unemployment: The Claimant Count and ILO Survey | 衡量失业：申领人数与 ILO 调查
Governments measure unemployment mainly through two methods. The Claimant Count records the number of people claiming unemployment-related benefits, such as Jobseeker's Allowance. It is cheap and quick to collect, but it can understate true unemployment because some jobless individuals may not be eligible for benefits or may choose not to claim them. Moreover, rules on benefit entitlement can change, making comparisons over time difficult.
政府主要通过两种方法衡量失业。申领人数统计的是领取与失业相关的福利（例如求职者津贴）的人数。这种方法收集成本低、速度快，但可能低估真实的失业水平，因为有些失业者可能不符合领取资格或选择不申领。此外，福利资格规定可能变化，使得跨时期比较变得困难。
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) survey, often called the Labour Force Survey (LFS), asks a sample of households whether individuals are out of work, have actively looked for work in the past four weeks, and could start within two weeks. This measure is internationally comparable, more accurate in capturing real joblessness, and includes those not claiming benefits. However, it is more expensive and subject to sampling errors. Most countries now use the ILO measure as their official unemployment rate.
国际劳工组织（ILO）调查，常被称为劳动力调查（LFS），通过询问住户样本中的人员是否没有工作、在过去四周内是否积极寻找工作以及能否在两周内开始工作来判断。这一衡量标准具有国际可比性，更能准确反映真实的失业状况，并且涵盖了未申领福利的人群。然而，该方法成本更高，且存在抽样误差。目前大多数国家采用 ILO 标准作为官方失业率。
3. Types of Unemployment: Frictional and Structural | 失业的类型：摩擦性与结构性
Frictional unemployment is short-term unemployment that occurs when workers are between jobs. This could be a school-leaver searching for their first job, a person who has quit to find a better position, or a returner to the labour market. It is usually seen as a normal and even healthy feature of a dynamic economy, reflecting workers' freedom to move and improve their prospects.
摩擦性失业是短期的失业，发生在劳动者转换工作期间。例如，刚离开校园寻找第一份工作的毕业生、辞职寻找更好职位的人或者重返劳动力市场的个体。它通常被视为一个正常甚至健康的经济特征，反映了劳动者自由流动和改善自身前景的能力。
Structural unemployment arises from a mismatch between the skills workers have and the skills employers need. This can happen when industries decline, new technologies replace human labour, or there is a geographical mismatch where jobs exist in one region but workers live in another. Unlike frictional unemployment, structural unemployment tends to last longer and requires retraining, education or relocation to resolve.
结构性失业源于劳动者拥有的技能与雇主所需技能之间的不匹配。当某些产业衰退、新技术取代人工，或者出现地域不匹配——工作岗位在一个地区而劳动者住在另一个地区——时，就可能发生结构性失业。与摩擦性失业不同，结构性失业往往持续时间更长，需要通过再培训、教育或搬迁来解决。
4. Cyclical (Demand-deficient) Unemployment | 周期性（需求不足）失业
Cyclical unemployment, also called demand-deficient unemployment, occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy to employ everyone who wants a job. During a recession or economic downturn, households cut spending, firms produce less and workers are laid off. This type of unemployment spreads across many sectors and is directly linked to the business cycle—rising sharply in slumps and falling in booms.
周期性失业，也称为需求不足失业，发生在经济中的总需求不足以雇用所有想要工作的人时。在经济衰退或不景气期间，家庭削减支出，企业减产，工人被解雇。这种失业波及许多行业，并直接与经济周期挂钩——在经济低迷时期急剧上升，在繁荣时期下降。
Keynesian economists argue that cyclical unemployment is the result of a deficiency in aggregate demand. The solution lies in boosting spending through expansionary fiscal policy (higher government expenditure, lower taxes) or expansionary monetary policy (lower interest rates). In a deep recession, a government may need to run a budget deficit to stimulate the economy and bring unemployment down.
凯恩斯主义经济学家认为，周期性失业是总需求不足的结果。解决办法在于通过扩张性财政政策（增加政府支出、减税）或扩张性货币政策（降低利率）来提振支出。在深度衰退中，政府可能需要运用预算赤字来刺激经济并降低失业率。
5. Seasonal and Other Types of Unemployment | 季节性失业与其他类型
Seasonal unemployment arises when people are out of work during particular times of the year because demand for certain labour changes with the seasons. Classic examples include agricultural workers during non-harvest months, tourism staff in holiday resorts outside peak season, and retail workers hired only for festive periods. It is often predictable and can be partly smoothed by organising off-season activities or encouraging diversification.
季节性失业指人们在一年中的特定时间失业，因为对某些劳动力的需求随季节而变化。典型例子包括非收获月份的农业工人、旺季之外度假区中的旅游业员工，以及仅在节日期间雇用的零售人员。这类失业通常可预测，可以通过组织淡季活动或鼓励多样化部分减缓。
Other categories sometimes mentioned include technological unemployment, which is closely related to structural change, and hidden unemployment, where people are working far below their productive potential or are discouraged from looking for work. For Cambridge IGCSE, the focus remains on frictional, structural, cyclical and seasonal types, with a clear understanding of their causes and how they differ.
其他有时提及的类别包括技术性失业（与结构性变化密切相关）和隐蔽性失业（人们的工作远低于其生产潜力或已丧失求职信心）。对剑桥 IGCSE 而言，重点仍是摩擦性、结构性、周期性和季节性失业，要清楚了解其原因及区别。
6. The Costs of Unemployment to Individuals | 失业对个人的代价
For an individual, losing a job brings an immediate drop in income, making it harder to afford necessities such as food, housing and healthcare. Prolonged unemployment can deplete savings, force people to rely on family support or state benefits, and lead to debt. Even when a new job is found, earnings may be permanently lower than before the spell of joblessness.
对个人而言，失去工作会立刻导致收入下降，难以负担食品、住房和医疗等必需品。长期失业可能耗尽储蓄，迫使人们依赖家庭支持或国家福利，并导致债务。即便找到新工作，收入也可能永久低于失业之前的水平。
Unemployment also damages mental and physical health. Many jobless individuals experience stress, anxiety and loss of self-esteem. Over time, skills erode and motivation declines, making it harder to re-enter the workforce. Young people who suffer extended unemployment early in their careers may suffer lifelong scars in terms of lower lifetime earnings and weaker job prospects.
失业还会损害心理和身体健康。许多失业者经历压力、焦虑和自尊丧失。随着时间的推移，技能退化，积极性下降，重新进入劳动力市场变得更加困难。职业生涯早期遭受长期失业的年轻人可能留下终生伤痕，表现为较低的终身收入和较弱的就业前景。
7. The Social and Economic Costs of Unemployment | 失业的社会与经济代价
At the national level, high unemployment means the economy is producing below its potential. This output gap represents a waste of scarce resources. The government receives less income tax and sales tax revenue, while spending more on welfare benefits and job-search support. The fiscal strain can force difficult choices between higher borrowing, tax rises or cuts to public services.
在国家层面，高失业率意味着经济生产低于其潜在水平。这种产出缺口代表着稀缺资源的浪费。政府的所得税和消费税收入减少，同时需要在福利金和求职支持上支出更多。财政压力可能迫使在增加借款、增税或削减公共服务之间作出艰难选择。
Social costs of unemployment can be severe. Areas with high and persistent joblessness often see higher crime rates, family breakdowns and poorer community health. Inequality widens because the burden falls disproportionately on low-skilled and younger workers. Long-term unemployment can create an underclass of people who feel disconnected from the labour market and society, undermining social cohesion.
失业的社会代价可能十分严重。失业率高且持续的地区往往犯罪率更高、家庭破裂更多、社区健康状况更差。不平等加剧，因为失业负担不成比例地落在低技能和年轻工人身上。长期失业可能形成一个下层阶级，让人感觉与劳动力市场和社会脱节，从而损害社会凝聚力。
8. The Concept of Full Employment | 充分就业的概念
Full employment does not mean zero unemployment. In any dynamic economy, some people will be between jobs (frictional unemployment) and others will be in the process of retraining or relocating due to changing industries (structural unemployment). The natural rate of unemployment, sometimes called the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU), is the unemployment rate that exists when the economy is at full capacity, consisting only of frictional and structural elements.
充分就业并不意味着零失业。在任何充满活力的经济中，总有一些人在转换工作（摩擦性失业），另一些人则因行业变化而处于再培训或搬迁的过程中（结构性失业）。自然失业率，有时被称为非加速通胀失业率（NAIRU），是指经济处于满负荷运行时存在的失业率，它只包括摩擦性和结构性失业这两种成分。
When actual unemployment falls towards the natural rate, the economy is considered to be at full employment. Attempting to push unemployment below this level through demand-side policies can cause rising inflation, as excess demand chases a limited pool of available workers. For policymakers, the goal is to reduce cyclical unemployment to zero, while working to lower the natural rate itself through supply-side improvements.
当实际失业率降至自然失业率附近时，经济就算处于充分就业状态。如果试图通过需求侧政策将失业率压低到这一水平以下，可能会引起通胀上升，因为过度需求在争夺有限的可用劳动力。对政策制定者来说，目标是将周期性失业降至零，同时通过供给侧改革来降低自然失业率本身。
9. Demand-side Policies to Reduce Unemployment | 降低失业的需求侧政策
Demand-side policies aim to increase aggregate demand (C+I+G+X-M) so that firms need to hire more workers to meet rising orders. Expansionary fiscal policy involves increasing government spending or cutting taxes. For example, a government might invest in infrastructure projects, creating direct construction jobs, or reduce income tax to boost household spending. Expansionary monetary policy lowers interest rates to encourage borrowing by firms and consumers, or the central bank may use quantitative easing to inject money into the economy.
需求侧政策旨在增加总需求（消费+投资+政府支出+净出口），使企业需要雇佣更多工人以满足订单的增加。扩张性财政政策包括增加政府支出或减税。例如，政府可能投资基础设施项目，直接创造建筑岗位，或者降低所得税以提升家庭支出。扩张性货币政策通过降低利率来鼓励企业和消费者借贷，或者央行可能采用量化宽松向经济注入货币。
These policies are most effective at fighting cyclical unemployment during recessions. However, they carry risks. If the economy is already near full capacity, boosting demand mainly pushes up prices rather than output, causing inflation. There can also be time lags before policy takes effect, and higher government borrowing might crowd out private investment by driving up interest rates. Demand-side measures do little to address structural or frictional unemployment.
这些政策在对抗衰退期间的周期性失业时最为有效，但也带有风险。如果经济已经接近满负荷，刺激需求主要会推高价格而非产出，引发通胀。政策发挥作用也可能存在时滞，而且政府增加借款可能通过推高利率挤出私人投资。需求侧措施对解决结构性或摩擦性失业几乎没有作用。
10. Supply-side Policies to Tackle Unemployment | 解决失业的供给侧政策
Supply-side policies focus on improving the quality and flexibility of the labour market. Education and training programmes help workers acquire the skills demanded by modern industries, reducing structural unemployment. Subsidising apprenticeships or vocational courses can create a smoother transition from school to work, lowering youth unemployment. Governments may also fund retraining for adults whose jobs have been lost to automation or globalisation.
供给侧政策侧重于提高劳动力市场的质量和灵活性。教育和培训项目帮助劳动者获得现代产业所需的技能，从而减少结构性失业。补贴学徒培训或职业课程可以让从学校到职场的过渡更顺畅，降低青年失业率。政府还可以资助为因自动化或全球化而失业的成年人提供的再培训。
Other supply-side approaches include reforming welfare benefits to ensure that work always pays more than remaining on benefits. This can strengthen work incentives and reduce voluntary unemployment. Reducing the power of trade unions or making it easier for firms to hire and fire workers (labour market deregulation) can, according to some economists, encourage job creation. However, critics argue that weakening workers' protection can lower job quality and increase precarious employment.
其他供给侧方法包括改革福利待遇，确保工作收入总是高于依赖福利的水平，从而增强工作激励，减少自愿失业。一些经济学家认为，削弱工会权力或使企业更容易招聘和解雇员工（劳动力市场去管制化）可以鼓励创造就业。但批评者指出，削弱劳动者保护可能降低工作质量，并增加不稳定的就业。
11. Evaluating Unemployment Policies | 失业政策评估
No single policy can cure all types of unemployment. Demand-side expansion works well for cyclical unemployment but may fuel inflation if mis-timed. Supply-side reforms are essential for long-term structural improvements but take many years to show results. A successful strategy usually blends both approaches: using fiscal and monetary tools to manage the business cycle, while investing steadily in education, infrastructure and labour market flexibility.
没有任何单一政策能够解决所有类型的失业。需求侧扩张对周期性失业效果良好，但如果时机不当可能引发通胀。供给侧改革对长期结构性改善至关重要，但需要多年才能见效。成功的策略通常结合两种方法：运用财政和货币工具管理经济周期，同时持续投资于教育、基础设施和劳动力市场灵活性。
Policymakers also need to consider equity and social impact. Cutting benefits may increase incentives to work but can harm vulnerable families without immediate job offers. Deregulation could create more jobs but may widen income inequality. The best policies are those that target specific causes, are well-coordinated across government departments, and adapt to changing economic conditions. Evaluation must consider costs, time lags, and possible unintended consequences.
政策制定者还需考虑公平和社会影响。削减福利可能增强工作激励，但在没有即时工作机会的情况下可能伤害弱势家庭。去管制化可能创造更多就业，但可能扩大收入不平等。最优政策是针对具体原因、跨部门协调良好并能适应变化的经济环境。评估必须考虑成本、时滞和可能的意外后果。
12. Global Perspectives on Unemployment | 全球视角下的失业问题
Unemployment patterns differ strikingly around the world. High-income economies tend to have lower official unemployment rates but face challenges of structural change as manufacturing shifts to emerging markets. Many developing countries struggle with high levels of disguised unemployment in agriculture, where too many people work on small plots with very low productivity. Youth unemployment is a global concern, often double or triple the overall rate in both rich and poor nations.
世界各地的失业模式差异显著。高收入经济体官方失业率往往较低，但随着制造业向新兴市场转移，它们面临结构性变化的挑战。许多发展中国家在农业领域存在大量隐蔽性失业，太多人在小块土地上工作，生产率极低。青年失业是一个全球性问题，无论在富国还是穷国，青年失业率常常是总体失业率的两三倍。
Economic globalisation and technological change continue to reshape labour markets. While trade creates new export jobs, it can also destroy jobs in industries exposed to international competition. The rise of the gig economy and remote work offers flexibility but often reduces job security. Understanding these global forces helps students see why unemployment remains a central topic for economists and governments everywhere.
经济全球化和技术变革不断重塑劳动力市场。贸易在创造新的出口岗位的同时，也会摧毁面临国际竞争的行业中的就业。零工经济和远程工作的兴起提供了灵活性，但往往降低了职业安全感。理解这些全球力量有助于学生看到，为什么失业仍然是各地经济学家和政府关注的核心议题。
Published by TutorHao | Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图