📚 Main Ideas of the Anarchical Society and Society of States Theory | 无政府社会与国家社会理论的主要思想
The study of international relations often begins with a central paradox: the world is anarchic in the sense that there is no global government, yet states do not exist in a constant war of all against all. The theory of the anarchical society, most famously articulated by Hedley Bull and the English School, seeks to explain how order emerges among sovereign states despite the absence of a central authority. This body of thought describes international politics as a society of states, bound by shared rules, norms, and institutions that mitigate the harshness of anarchy.
国际关系的研究常从一个核心悖论开始：世界是无政府的，因为没有全球政府，然而国家之间并未陷入一切人对一切人的持续战争。无政府社会理论，由赫德利·布尔和英国学派最著名地阐述，试图解释在缺乏中央权威的情况下，主权国家之间如何产生秩序。这一思想体系将国际政治描述为一个国家社会，由共享的规则、规范和制度所维系，减轻了无政府状态的严酷性。
1. The Paradox of International Anarchy | 国际无政府状态的悖论
At first glance, the term 'anarchical society' appears contradictory. Anarchy suggests chaos and the absence of rule, while society implies order and cooperation. In international relations, anarchy simply means the lack of a world government; there is no higher authority above sovereign states. Realists have long argued that this condition inevitably leads to a self-help system where states prioritise survival above all else. However, the anarchical society perspective argues that even without a global leviathan, states can form a society characterised by regular interaction, common interests, and a sense of being bound by rules.
乍一看，“无政府社会”一词似乎自相矛盾。无政府意味着混乱和规则的缺失，而社会则意味着秩序与合作。在国际关系中，无政府状态仅仅意味着缺乏世界政府；在主权国家之上没有更高的权威。现实主义者长期认为，这种状态必然导致自助体系，国家将生存置于一切之上。然而，无政府社会视角认为，即使没有全球性的利维坦，国家也能形成一个以定期互动、共同利益和受规则约束的认同感为特征的社会。
2. Hedley Bull and the English School | 赫德利·布尔与英国学派
Hedley Bull's seminal work, The Anarchical Society (1977), is the cornerstone of this theory. Bull was a key figure in the English School of international relations, which occupies a middle ground between realism and idealism. He rejected the realist assumption that anarchy precludes society, and the idealist notion that a world government is necessary for order. Instead, Bull argued that states form a society when they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share in the working of common institutions.
赫德利·布尔的奠基之作《无政府社会》（1977年）是该理论的基石。布尔是国际关系英国学派的关键人物，该学派占据现实主义和理想主义之间的中间地带。他既反对现实主义关于无政府状态排斥社会的假设，也反对理想主义关于世界政府对秩序不可或缺的观点。相反，布尔认为，当国家设想自己在彼此关系中受一套共同规则约束，并参与共同制度的运作时，就形成了一个社会。
3. Key Elements of a Society of States | 国家社会的关键要素
Bull identified three fundamental components of any society: a sense of common interest, rules, and institutions. For a society of states to exist, states must recognise that they share certain basic goals, such as the preservation of the system itself, the maintenance of sovereignty, and the limitation of violence. From these interests emerge rules—both formal (treaties, international law) and informal (custom, diplomatic practice). Institutions like diplomacy, the balance of power, and great power management help to uphold these rules and make the society function.
布尔指出任何社会的三个基本组成部分：共同利益感、规则和制度。要存在一个国家社会，各国必须认识到它们共享某些基本目标，如保持体系本身、维护主权和限制暴力。从这些利益中产生了规则——既有正式的（条约、国际法），也有非正式的（惯例、外交实践）。外交、均势和大国管理这类的制度有助于维护这些规则并使社会运转。
4. The Role of Rules and Norms | 规则与规范的作用
Rules provide the framework within which international politics is conducted. They prescribe behaviour that sustains the society of states, such as the principle of non-intervention, pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept), and the laws of war. Crucially, these rules are not always enforced by a central authority; they are sustained because states perceive them as legitimate and in their long-term interest. The anarchical society thus rests on a normative consensus that differentiates it from a mere system of interacting units.
规则提供了国际政治运行的框架。它们规定了维持国家社会的行为，如不干涉原则、条约必须遵守以及战争法。至关重要的是，这些规则并不总是由中央权威强制执行；它们得以维持是因为国家视其为合法且符合自身长远利益。因此，无政府社会立足于一种规范性共识，这使其区别于单纯的互动单元体系。
5. Institutions of International Society | 国际社会的制度
Bull highlighted five primary institutions that have historically sustained international order: the balance of power, international law, diplomacy, the managerial role of great powers, and war. These are not formal organisations like the United Nations, but deeply embedded practices. The balance of power prevents any single state from dominating the system; law provides a common legal framework; diplomacy facilitates communication; great powers manage areas of tension; and war, paradoxically, can be used to enforce law or maintain the balance.
布尔强调了历史上维持国际秩序的五个主要制度：均势、国际法、外交、大国管理作用以及战争。它们不是像联合国那样的正式组织，而是根深蒂固的实践。均势防止任何一国主宰体系；法律提供共同的法律框架；外交促进沟通；大国管理紧张区域；而战争，自相矛盾地，可用于执行法律或维持均势。
6. Order versus Justice in the Anarchical Society | 无政府社会中的秩序与正义
One of the central tensions in Bull's work is the relationship between order and justice. Order refers to the maintenance of the basic goals of the society of states—stability, sovereignty, and peace. Justice, on the other hand, involves demands for human rights, economic equality, and self-determination. Bull argued that there is often a trade-off between them: the pursuit of absolute justice can undermine order, while an obsessive focus on order can perpetuate injustice. The society of states must continually negotiate this tension.
布尔著作中的核心张力之一是秩序与正义之间的关系。秩序是指维持国家社会的基本目标——稳定、主权与和平。而正义则涉及人权、经济平等和民族自决的要求。布尔认为二者之间常有权衡：追求绝对的正义可能破坏秩序，而执迷于秩序又会使不公持续。国家社会必须不断协调这一张力。
7. The Expansion of International Society | 国际社会的扩展
The classical European society of states gradually expanded to become a global international society through colonialism and decolonisation. Bull and later English School scholars examined how non-European states were incorporated, often on unequal terms. This expansion raised profound questions about cultural diversity and universal values: can a global international society be based on Western-origin norms, or must it evolve to reflect a pluralistic world?
经典的欧洲国家社会通过殖民化和去殖民化，逐渐扩展为全球国际社会。布尔及后来的英国学派学者探讨了非欧洲国家如何被纳入，且常常是以不平等的条件。这一扩展引发了关于文化多样性和普世价值的深刻问题：一个全球国际社会能否建立在源于西方的规范之上，还是必须演变以反映一个多元的世界？
8. Critiques of the Anarchical Society Theory | 对无政府社会理论的批评
Critics from the realist camp argue that Bull overstates the degree of consensus and understates the role of power and conflict. Neorealists contend that cooperation is fragile and always subordinate to relative gains. From a critical theory or postcolonial perspective, the society of states is seen as an elite, Western-centric construction that masks deep structural inequalities. Despite these critiques, the anarchical society framework remains influential for its nuanced depiction of international order.
现实主义阵营的批评者认为，布尔高估了共识程度，低估了权力与冲突的作用。新现实主义者主张合作是脆弱的，且总是屈从于相对收益。从批判理论或后殖民视角来看，国家社会被视为一种精英的、以西方为中心的建构，掩盖了深层的结构性不平等。尽管有这些批评，无政府社会框架仍因其对国际秩序细致入微的描绘而具有影响力。
9. Comparison with Other IR Theories | 与其他国际关系理论的比较
The English School's middle-ground position is best understood through comparison. Realism sees anarchy as an immutable structure dictating power politics. Liberalism/institutionalism focuses on how international institutions can foster cooperation through interdependence and regimes. Constructivism shares the English School's emphasis on norms, but often focuses on non-state actors and identity. The society of states theory uniquely combines historical analysis, normative enquiry, and a focus on the systemic level of state interaction.
英国学派的中间立场通过比较最能理解。现实主义视无政府状态为决定强权政治的不可变结构。自由主义/制度主义关注国际制度如何通过相互依赖和机制促进合作。建构主义与英国学派一样强调规范，但往往关注非国家行为体和身份认同。国家社会理论独到地结合了历史分析、规范探究以及对国家互动体系层面的关注。
10. Contemporary Relevance of the Society of States | 国家社会的当代相关性
Today, the anarchical society lens helps to understand phenomena such as humanitarian intervention, the responsibility to protect (R2P), and the tension between state sovereignty and human rights. The challenges posed by climate change, cybersecurity, and global pandemics test the resilience of the society of states. These issues require collective action that transcends borders, reinforcing the English School argument that even in anarchy, states can and must act as a society to address common threats.
今天，无政府社会的视角有助于理解人道主义干预、保护责任（R2P）以及国家主权与人权之间的紧张等现象。气候变化、网络安全和全球疫情带来的挑战考验着国家社会的韧性。这些问题要求超越边界的集体行动，强化了英国学派的论点：即使在无政府状态下，各国也能且必须作为一个社会来应对共同威胁。
11. Summary of Core Principles | 核心原则总结
In essence, the anarchical society theory holds that international relations are not merely a state of war or a prelude to world government. It is a unique realm where sovereign states, while recognising no higher authority, nevertheless develop common interests, rules, and institutions that generate a distinct form of order. This order is fragile, often unjust, but real. Understanding this society is essential for both scholars and practitioners of international affairs.
本质上，无政府社会理论认为，国际关系既非单纯的战争状态，也非世界政府的序曲。它是一个独特的领域，主权国家在承认没有更高权威的同时，仍然发展出共同利益、规则和制度，从而产生了一种独特的秩序形式。这种秩序是脆弱的，往往不公正，但却是真实的。理解这一社会，对国际事务的学者和实践者都至关重要。
12. The English School Legacy | 英国学派的遗产
The English School has evolved beyond Bull, with scholars like Barry Buzan redefining international society to include world society (non-state actors, individuals) and international system. The enduring contribution of the anarchical society concept is its refusal to see anarchy and society as opposites, and its insistence that the quest for international order is a permanent, evolving project woven into the fabric of statecraft.
英国学派在布尔之后有所发展，像巴里·布赞这样的学者将国际社会重新定义为包括世界社会（非国家行为体、个人）和国际体系。无政府社会概念的持久贡献在于它拒绝将无政府与社会视为对立面，并坚持认为对国际秩序的追求是一个持续演进的事业，交织在治国之道的结构之中。
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