📚 Federalism | 联邦制
Federalism is a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. It is a core topic in the Edexcel A-Level Politics specification, particularly within the study of UK and US comparative politics. Understanding federalism requires an exploration of its defining characteristics, the distinction between federal and unitary systems, and how it operates in practice across different nations. This article provides a comprehensive revision of federalism, covering formal features, real‑world examples, and the debates surrounding its strengths and weaknesses.
联邦制是一种将主权在宪法层面上分配给中央治理机构和组成政治单位（如州或省）的政府体制。这是爱德思 A-Level 政治学课程大纲中的核心主题，尤其出现在英国与美国比较政治的学习中。理解联邦制需要深入探讨它的定义性特征、联邦制与单一制的区别，以及它在不同国家的实际运作。本文将对联邦制进行全面复习，涵盖正式特征、现实案例以及围绕其优势与劣势的辩论。
1. What is Federalism? | 什么是联邦制？
Federalism refers to a political structure where power is shared between a national government and various regional governments. Each level of government has its own set of responsibilities and a degree of autonomy protected by a written constitution. Unlike a unitary state, where ultimate authority rests with the central government, a federation ensures that regional units are not merely administrative subdivisions but possess constitutionally guaranteed powers. The term originates from the Latin foedus, meaning covenant or treaty, highlighting the idea of an agreement among equals to form a larger whole.
联邦制指的是一种政治结构，其中权力由国家政府和各个地区政府共享。每一级政府都有自己的职责范围，并拥有受到成文宪法保护的自主权。与最终权威归属中央政府的单一制国家不同，联邦制确保地区单位不仅仅是行政分支，而是拥有宪法保障的权力。该术语源于拉丁语 foedus，意为契约或条约，突出了平等各方为形成更大整体而达成的协议这一理念。
2. Federal vs Unitary vs Confederal | 联邦制、单一制与邦联制的区别
To grasp federalism fully, it must be contrasted with unitary and confederal systems. In a unitary system, the central government is supreme; it can create or abolish regional assemblies and devolve or revoke powers at will. The United Kingdom before devolution is a classic example. In a confederal system, the central authority is weak, and most power resides with the constituent states, as seen in the United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789). Federalism occupies a middle ground: power is divided, and neither level can unilaterally abolish the other. The constitutional settlement is entrenched, often requiring special procedures to amend.
要全面把握联邦制，必须将其与单一制和邦联制进行对比。在单一制中，中央政府至高无上；它可以创建或废除地区议会，并随意下放或收回权力。权力下放前的英国就是一个典型例子。在邦联制中，中央权威薄弱，大部分权力属于组成邦，正如《邦联条例》（1781–1789）下的美国。联邦制则处于中间地带：权力分开，任何一级都无法单方面废除另一级。宪法安排是牢固确立的，通常需要特殊程序才能修改。
| System | Sovereignty | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Unitary | Central government holds ultimate authority | UK (traditionally), France |
| Federal | Divided between central and regional governments | USA, Germany, Canada |
| Confederal | Member states retain sovereignty | Articles of Confederation USA, CIS |
3. Key Features of a Federal System | 联邦制的关键特征
Several institutional features define a federal system. First, a written and supreme constitution clearly allocates powers between the two levels of government and acts as a legal arbiter in disputes. Second, there is an independent judiciary, usually a supreme or constitutional court, that interprets the constitution and resolves conflicts. Third, power is not merely delegated but constitutionally guaranteed, meaning regional governments possess their own legislative, executive, and sometimes fiscal autonomy. Fourth, a bicameral legislature is common, with one chamber representing the regions equally (e.g., the US Senate) to safeguard regional interests at the federal level. Finally, the amendment process requires regional consent, preventing the centre from unilaterally altering the power balance.
几个制度性特征定义了联邦制。首先，一部成文的、至高无上的宪法明确划分两级政府之间的权力，并作为争端的法律仲裁者。其次，存在一个独立的司法机构，通常是最高法院或宪法法院，负责解释宪法和解决冲突。第三，权力不仅仅是下放，而是受到宪法保障的，这意味着地区政府拥有自己的立法、行政，有时还有财政自主权。第四，两院制立法机构很常见，其中一个议院平等代表地区（如美国参议院），以在联邦层面保障地区利益。最后，修宪程序需要地区同意，防止中央单方面改变权力平衡。
4. The US Federal System | 美国联邦制
The United States is the oldest continuous federation, its structure outlined in the Constitution of 1787. The 10th Amendment reserves all powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people, establishing a system of enumerated and reserved powers. Over time, the balance has shifted; the 'New Deal' era and Great Society programmes expanded federal influence via grants and mandates. More recently, the Supreme Court has sometimes rolled back federal reach in areas like healthcare and gun control, showing that US federalism remains a contested and evolving field. Dual federalism, cooperative federalism, and new federalism are terms used to describe different historical phases.
美国是最古老的连续运行的联邦国家，其结构在1787年宪法中勾勒出来。第十修正案将所有未授予联邦政府的权力保留给各州或人民，建立了一套列举权力和保留权力体系。随着时间的推移，平衡发生了变化；“新政”时代和“伟大社会”计划通过拨款和指令扩大了联邦影响。最近，最高法院有时在医疗保健和枪支管控等领域缩减了联邦管辖范围，表明美国联邦制仍然是一个充满争议且不断演变的领域。双重联邦制、合作联邦制和新联邦制是用来描述不同历史阶段的术语。
5. Federalism in Canada and Germany | 加拿大与德国的联邦制
Canada's federal system, established in 1867, was designed to balance strong provincial identities with a need for national unity. The division of powers in the Constitution Act lists exclusive federal powers (e.g., defence, currency) and exclusive provincial powers (e.g., education, health care). Canadian federalism has been shaped by Quebec's distinct status, leading to asymmetric arrangements such as the 2006 motion recognising Quebec as a nation within a united Canada. In Germany, the Basic Law of 1949 created a federal republic where the Länder (states) have strong representation through the Bundesrat, and the principle of Bundestreue (federal loyalty) obliges both levels to cooperate. Germany's fiscal federalism also involves complex revenue-sharing mechanisms.
加拿大于1867年建立的联邦制度旨在平衡强大的省份认同与国家统一的需要。《宪法法案》中的权力划分列举了联邦专属权力（如国防、货币）和省专属权力（如教育、医疗保健）。加拿大联邦制受到魁北克独特地位的影响，导致了不对称安排，如2006年的动议承认魁北克是统一加拿大内的一个民族。在德国，1949年的《基本法》创建了一个联邦共和国，各州通过联邦参议院拥有强有力的代表权，且“联邦忠诚”原则要求两级政府合作。德国的财政联邦制还涉及复杂的收入分享机制。
6. Devolution in the UK – Quasi‑federalism? | 英国的权力下放——准联邦制？
The United Kingdom remains a unitary state with devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. However, devolution has introduced federal-like features: the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Senedd exercise primary legislative powers in certain areas, and the settlement is underpinned by conventions (like the Sewel Convention) rather than a codified federal constitution. This creates an asymmetry, as England does not have its own parliament, and the Westminster Parliament theoretically retains the legal right to abolish the devolved bodies. Because sovereignty permanently rests with Parliament, the UK cannot be classified as a federation, but scholars often describe it as a 'union state' or 'quasi‑federal' system.
英国仍然是一个单一制国家，但在苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰设有权力下放的行政机构。然而，权力下放引入了类似联邦的特征：苏格兰议会和威尔士议会行使某些领域的首要立法权，且这种安排由惯例（如塞维尔惯例）而非一部成文的联邦宪法支撑。这带来了不对称性，因为英格兰没有自己的议会，而威斯敏斯特议会在理论上保留了废除这些权力下放机构的法定权利。由于主权永久属于议会，英国不能被归类为联邦国家，但学者们常称之为“联合王国”或“准联邦”制度。
7. Advantages of Federalism | 联邦制的优点
Federalism is often praised for promoting regional autonomy and protecting diversity. In large or geographically fragmented states, it brings government closer to the people, allowing policies to be tailored to local preferences. It also provides a structural check on central power, as regional governments can scrutinise and resist federal legislation. Furthermore, federal systems can serve as 'laboratories of democracy', where states experiment with innovative policies (e.g., healthcare reforms in Massachusetts before the Affordable Care Act). Additionally, by giving distinct ethnic or linguistic groups a measure of self‑rule, federalism can reduce secessionist pressures and foster stability.
联邦制常因促进地区自治和保护多样性而受到赞誉。在幅员辽阔或地理上分散的国家，它将政府带到民众身边，使政策能够根据地方偏好进行调整。它还对中央权力构成结构性制约，因为地区政府可以审查和抵制联邦立法。此外，联邦制度可以充当“民主的实验室”，各州在这里试验创新政策（例如，《平价医疗法案》之前马萨诸塞州的医疗改革）。另外，通过赋予不同的族群或语言群体一定程度的自治，联邦制可以减少分离主义压力并促进稳定。
8. Disadvantages of Federalism | 联邦制的缺点
Critics point to several drawbacks. Federal systems can create duplication and inefficiency, as multiple layers of government may overlap in responsibilities, leading to bureaucratic waste. The dispersal of power can also obstruct swift national action during crises—contrast the rapid lockdowns in unitary France with the inconsistent state‑by‑state response in the USA during the COVID‑19 pandemic. Moreover, federalism can entrench regional inequalities; wealthy regions may provide better public services than poorer ones, exacerbating disparities. There is also the risk of a 'postcode lottery' where citizens’ rights and benefits vary significantly depending on where they live.
批评者指出了几个缺点。联邦制度可能造成重复和低效，因为多层政府的职责可能重叠，导致官僚浪费。权力的分散也可能阻碍危机期间国家层面的迅速行动——对比法国单一制下快速的封锁措施与美国疫情期间各州反应不一的情况。此外，联邦制可能加剧地区不平等；富裕地区可能提供比贫困地区更好的公共服务，从而扩大差距。还存在“邮编彩票”的风险，即公民的权利和福利因居住地不同而有显著差异。
9. Federalism and the Supreme Court | 联邦制与最高法院
In federal systems, the judiciary often plays a pivotal role in defining the boundaries between central and regional authority. In the USA, landmark cases such as McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) established the doctrine of implied powers, while United States v. Lopez (1995) reasserted limits on federal commerce power. The Supreme Court can shift the federal balance significantly, as seen in recent rulings on abortion that returned the issue to state legislatures. In Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court regularly adjudicates disputes between the Bund and Länder, ensuring that the principle of federal comity is respected.
在联邦制度中，司法机构通常在界定中央与地区权力边界方面发挥关键作用。在美国，像 麦卡洛克诉马里兰州案（1819年）这样的里程碑案件确立了默示权力原则，而 美国诉洛佩兹案（1995年）重新确认了对联邦商业权力的限制。最高法院可以显著改变联邦平衡，正如最近将堕胎问题交还各州立法机构的裁决所示。在德国，联邦宪法法院定期裁决联邦与各州之间的争议，确保联邦礼让原则得到遵守。
10. Fiscal Federalism | 财政联邦制
Financial arrangements lie at the heart of federal governance. Fiscal federalism examines how revenue is raised and distributed across different tiers. Most federations rely on a mix of exclusive taxes for each level and shared taxes, coupled with grants from the centre to poorer regions to equalise services. For instance, in Australia, the system of horizontal fiscal equalisation aims to ensure that each state has the capacity to provide services at a comparable standard. However, such transfers frequently generate political contention, with donor states complaining about unfair burdens and recipient states demanding adequate funding.
财政安排是联邦治理的核心。财政联邦制考察收入如何在不同层级之间筹集和分配。大多数联邦国家依靠各层级专属税收与共享税收相结合的模式，加上中央对较贫困地区的拨款以实现服务均等化。例如，在澳大利亚，水平财政均等化制度旨在确保每个州都有能力提供相应标准的服务。然而，这类转移支付常常引发政治争议，缴款州抱怨负担不公，接收州则要求充足资金。
11. Federalism and Political Parties | 联邦制与政党
The operation of federalism is deeply influenced by the party system. Centrally organised parties can override federal divisions by imposing uniform policy agendas, weakening the autonomy of regional governments. Conversely, when parties are decentralised or regionally based, they reinforce federalism. In Canada, regional parties like the Bloc Québécois amplify provincial demands. In Germany, the party system is closely integrated across levels, making the Bundesrat sometimes a party‑political battleground rather than a genuine territorial chamber. This interaction highlights that federalism cannot be understood solely by looking at constitutional texts.
联邦制的运作深受政党制度的影响。中央组织化的政党可以通过推行统一的政策议程来超越联邦划分，从而削弱地区政府的自治权。相反，当政党分散或以地区为基础时，它们会强化联邦制。在加拿大，像魁北克集团这样的地区政党放大了省份诉求。在德国，政党制度在各层级之间紧密整合，使得联邦参议院有时更像一个党派政治战场，而非真正代表领土利益的议院。这种相互作用凸显出，联邦制不能仅通过宪法条文来理解。
12. The Future of Federalism | 联邦制的未来
Federalism continues to evolve in response to globalisation, regional nationalism, and crises. The COVID‑19 pandemic tested federations worldwide, revealing both strengths (local adaptation) and weaknesses (coordination failures). Climate change policy often requires national targets but local implementation, posing challenges for federal coordination. In the UK, debates over a federal future persist, with proposals for an English Parliament or regional assemblies. As the world becomes more interconnected, federal systems must balance the demand for local self‑determination with the need for collective action on transnational issues.
联邦制随着全球化、地区民族主义和危机应对而不断演变。新冠疫情考验了世界各地的联邦国家，既展现了优势（因地制宜），也暴露了弱点（协调失败）。气候变化政策往往需要国家目标与地方执行相结合，这给联邦协调带来了挑战。在英国，关于联邦未来的辩论持续不断，有人提出设立英格兰议会或地方议会的建议。随着世界变得日益相互依存，联邦制度必须在地方自决的需求与就跨国问题采取集体行动的需要之间取得平衡。
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