📚 Cambridge A-Level Biology Glossary | 剑桥A-Level生物学术语表
This glossary provides clear, concise definitions of the key terms that every Cambridge A-Level Biology student needs to master. Each entry is presented in English first, followed immediately by its Chinese equivalent, making it an ideal revision resource for bilingual learners. The terms are organised into ten logical sections covering the core syllabus areas.
本术语表为每一位剑桥A-Level生物学生提供了清晰、简洁的关键术语定义。每个词条均以英文在前、中文紧随其后的方式呈现，是双语学习者理想的复习工具。全部术语按照十个核心教学大纲模块进行编排。
1. Cell Structure and Organelles | 细胞结构与细胞器
Nucleus: The membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression.
细胞核：由双层膜包裹的细胞器，内含细胞的遗传物质（DNA），并通过调控基因表达来控制细胞活动。
Mitochondrion: A double-membraned organelle where aerobic respiration takes place; it produces ATP, the main energy currency of the cell.
线粒体：具双层膜结构的细胞器，是有氧呼吸发生的场所，能生成细胞的主要能量货币 ATP。
Ribosome: A small, non-membrane-bound particle composed of rRNA and protein, responsible for translating mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.
核糖体：由 rRNA 和蛋白质组成的不具膜结构的小颗粒，在蛋白质合成过程中负责将 mRNA 翻译为多肽链。
Cell wall: A rigid layer outside the plasma membrane of plant, fungal and prokaryotic cells, made of cellulose in plants, providing structural support and protection.
细胞壁：存在于植物、真菌和原核细胞质膜外的一层刚性结构，植物细胞壁由纤维素构成，提供结构支撑与保护。
Chloroplast: An organelle found in plant cells and some protists, surrounded by a double membrane and containing thylakoids; the site of photosynthesis.
叶绿体：存在于植物细胞及部分原生生物中的细胞器，具双层膜并含类囊体，是光合作用的场所。
Vacuole: A large, membrane-bound sac in plant cells that stores water, solutes and pigments, and helps maintain turgor pressure.
液泡：植物细胞中由液泡膜包裹的巨大囊泡，储存水分、溶质和色素，并帮助维持膨压。
2. Biological Molecules | 生物分子
Monosaccharide: The simplest form of carbohydrate, a single sugar unit such as glucose or fructose, with the general formula (CH₂O)ₙ.
单糖：最简单的碳水化合物形式，由一个糖单元组成，如葡萄糖或果糖，通式为 (CH₂O)ₙ。
Disaccharide: A carbohydrate formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides, e.g. sucrose (glucose + fructose) or maltose (glucose + glucose).
二糖：由两个单糖经缩合反应形成的碳水化合物，例如蔗糖（葡萄糖 + 果糖）或麦芽糖（葡萄糖 + 葡萄糖）。
Polysaccharide: A long-chain polymer made of many monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, e.g. starch, glycogen and cellulose.
多糖：由许多单糖单元通过糖苷键连接而成的长链聚合物，如淀粉、糖原和纤维素。
Amino acid: The monomer building block of proteins, containing an amino group, a carboxyl group and a variable R group attached to a central carbon atom.
氨基酸：蛋白质的单体构件，含有一个氨基、一个羧基和一个连接在中心碳原子上的可变 R 基团。
Primary structure: The unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, held together by peptide bonds.
一级结构：多肽链中氨基酸的独特序列，由肽键连接。
Phospholipid: A lipid molecule consisting of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails and a phosphate group; the main component of cell membranes, forming a bilayer.
磷脂：由甘油骨架、两条脂肪酸尾和一个磷酸基团组成的脂质分子，是细胞膜的主要成分，能形成磷脂双分子层。
3. Enzymes | 酶
Enzyme: A biological catalyst, almost always a protein, that speeds up a specific chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.
酶：几乎都是蛋白质的生物催化剂，通过降低活化能来加速特定的化学反应。
Active site: The specific region on an enzyme's surface where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place; its shape is complementary to the substrate.
活性位点：酶表面上与底物结合并发生反应的特定区域，其形状与底物互补。
Substrate: The reactant molecule that fits into the active site of an enzyme and is converted into the product.
底物：能与酶的活性位点结合的的反应物分子，可被转化为产物。
Denaturation: The irreversible change in an enzyme's tertiary structure, usually caused by high temperature or extreme pH, leading to loss of catalytic function.
变性：酶的三级结构发生不可逆变化，通常由高温或极端 pH 引起，导致催化功能丧失。
Competitive inhibitor: A molecule that resembles the substrate and competes for the active site, reducing the rate of reaction; its effect can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.
竞争性抑制剂：结构与底物相似并能竞争活性位点的分子，会降低反应速率；其效应可通过提高底物浓度来克服。
4. Cell Membranes and Transport | 细胞膜与运输
Fluid mosaic model: The accepted model of membrane structure, describing a phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded, with components free to move laterally.
流动镶嵌模型：目前被公认的膜结构模型，描述磷脂双分子层中嵌有蛋白质，各组分可在膜内横向移动。
Phospholipid bilayer: The fundamental arrangement of membrane lipids, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward, forming a selectively permeable barrier.
磷脂双分子层：膜脂质的基本排列方式，亲水头部朝外、疏水尾部朝内，组成一个选择透过性屏障。
Diffusion: The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, a passive process.
扩散：粒子由高浓度区域向低浓度区域沿浓度梯度发生的净移动，属于被动过程。
Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential.
渗透作用：水分子通过部分通透膜从水势较高的区域向水势较低的区域的净移动。
Active transport: The movement of molecules or ions against their concentration gradient across a membrane, requiring energy in the form of ATP and specific carrier proteins.
主动运输：分子或离子逆浓度梯度跨膜移动，需要 ATP 形式的能量以及特异的载体蛋白。
Endocytosis: The bulk uptake of materials by the cell membrane engulfing them into a vesicle; includes phagocytosis (solids) and pinocytosis (liquids).
胞吞作用：细胞膜通过包裹物质形成囊泡而大量摄取物质的过程，包括吞噬（固体）和胞饮（液体）。
5. Cell Division and Mitosis | 细胞分裂与有丝分裂
Mitosis: A type of nuclear division that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei from a single parent nucleus, maintaining the chromosome number.
有丝分裂：一种核分裂方式，从一个亲代细胞核产生两个遗传上完全相同的子代细胞核，保持染色体数目不变。
Chromosome: A thread-like structure composed of DNA and histone proteins, which condenses during cell division and carries genetic information.
染色体：由 DNA 和组蛋白构成的线状结构，在细胞分裂时凝缩，携带遗传信息。
Centromere: The region of a chromosome where two sister chromatids are held together, and the point of attachment for spindle fibres during cell division.
着丝粒：染色体上连接两条姐妹染色单体的区域，也是在细胞分裂时纺锤丝附着的位点。
Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm following nuclear division, resulting in two separate daughter cells.
胞质分裂：核分裂后细胞质的分裂过程，最终形成两个独立的子细胞。
Cancer: A disease caused by uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle, often forming a tumour.
癌症：因调控细胞周期的基因发生突变而导致细胞不受控制地分裂所引发的疾病，常会形成肿瘤。
6. DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis | DNA、RNA 与蛋白质合成
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, a double-stranded polynucleotide that stores genetic information in the sequence of its nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）：一种双链多聚核苷酸，以含氮碱基（腺嘌呤、胸腺嘧啶、胞嘧啶、鸟嘌呤）的序列存储遗传信息。
RNA: Ribonucleic acid, a single-stranded polynucleotide involved in protein synthesis; it contains uracil instead of thymine and ribose instead of deoxyribose.
RNA（核糖核酸）：参与蛋白质合成的单链多聚核苷酸，含有尿嘧啶而非胸腺嘧啶，含核糖而非脱氧核糖。
Transcription: The process in the nucleus by which an mRNA molecule is synthesised using a DNA template strand, catalysed by RNA polymerase.
转录：在细胞核内以 DNA 模板链为模板，由 RNA 聚合酶催化合成 mRNA 分子的过程。
Translation: The process at ribosomes where the sequence of codons on mRNA is decoded to assemble a specific polypeptide chain.
翻译：在核糖体上根据 mRNA 上的密码子序列解读信息并组装特定多肽链的过程。
Codon: A sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid or signals the start/stop of translation.
密码子：mRNA 上由三个核苷酸组成的序列，编码特定的氨基酸或发出翻译起始/终止的信号。
Anticodon: A sequence of three unpaired bases on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to an mRNA codon, ensuring the correct amino acid is incorporated.
反密码子：tRNA 分子上由三个未配对碱基组成的序列，与 mRNA 的密码子互补，确保正确的氨基酸被加入。
7. Transport in Plants | 植物运输
Xylem: A plant tissue composed of hollow, dead cells strengthened with lignin, responsible for the transport of water and mineral ions from roots to leaves.
木质部：由被木质素加固的、中空死细胞组成的植物组织，负责将水和无机离子从根部向上运输至叶片。
Phloem: A living plant tissue consisting of sieve tube elements and companion cells, transporting organic solutes such as sucrose from sources to sinks.
韧皮部：由筛管分子和伴胞组成的活植物组织，负责将蔗糖等有机溶质从源运输至库。
Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, mainly through the stomata of leaves, driven by evaporation.
蒸腾作用：水蒸气从植物地上部分（主要通过叶片气孔）的散失，由蒸发作用驱动。
Cohesion-tension theory: The model explaining water movement up the xylem: cohesion between water molecules and adhesion to xylem walls create a continuous column, and transpiration pull generates tension.
内聚力-张力理论：解释水分沿木质部上升的模型：水分子间的内聚力及其与木质部壁的黏附力形成连续水柱，蒸腾拉力产生张力。
Translocation: The transport of assimilates, particularly sucrose, through the phloem from sources (e.g. leaves) to sinks (e.g. roots, fruits).
输导作用：光合产物（特别是蔗糖）通过韧皮部从源（如叶片）向库（如根、果实）运输的过程。
8. Transport in Mammals | 哺乳动物运输
Heart: A muscular organ that pumps blood around the body; in mammals it is a double pump with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
心脏：将血液泵送至全身的肌肉器官；哺乳动物的心脏是双泵结构，具有四个腔室：两个心房和两个心室。
Artery: A blood vessel with thick, elastic walls that carries blood away from the heart under high pressure; all arteries except the pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood.
动脉：具有厚实弹性管壁的血管，将血液在高压下从心脏运出；除肺动脉外，所有动脉都运输含氧血。
Vein: A blood vessel with thinner walls and valves that carries blood back toward the heart at lower pressure; veins have a wider lumen than arteries.
静脉：管壁较薄且带有瓣膜的血管，在较低压力下将血液导回心脏；静脉的管腔比动脉宽。
Capillary: The smallest blood vessel, with walls only one cell thick, where exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes takes place between blood and tissues.
毛细血管：管壁仅由一层细胞构成的最细血管，是血液与组织间进行气体、营养物质和废物交换的场所。
Haemoglobin: A globular protein in red blood cells containing four haem groups, each capable of binding one oxygen molecule; it transports oxygen from the lungs to respiring tissues.
血红蛋白：红细胞中的球状蛋白，含有四个血红素基团，每个基团可结合一分子氧；负责将氧从肺部运输到需氧组织。
Bohr effect: The decrease in the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen in the presence of increased carbon dioxide concentration or decreased pH, enhancing oxygen unloading in active tissues.
波尔效应：在二氧化碳浓度升高或 pH 降低时，血红蛋白对氧的亲和力下降，从而促进氧在活跃组织中的释放。
9. Gas Exchange | 气体交换
Alveoli: Millions of tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs; their walls are one cell thick and are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries.
肺泡：肺内数以百万计的微小气囊，气体交换在此进行；其壁仅由一层细胞构成，周围密布毛细血管网。
Trachea: A wide tube supported by C-shaped cartilage rings that conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi; its lining contains ciliated epithelium and goblet cells.
气管：由 C 形软骨环支撑的宽阔管道，将空气从喉部导至支气管；内壁有纤毛上皮和杯状细胞。
Spirometer: An apparatus used to measure the volume of air inhaled and exhaled; it can produce a trace from which tidal volume, vital capacity and breathing rate are determined.
肺活量计：用于测量吸入和呼出气体体积的仪器，可记录呼吸曲线，据此测定潮气量、肺活量和呼吸频率。
Tidal volume: The volume of air moved into or out of the lungs during a normal breath at rest, typically around 0.5 dm³ in an adult.
潮气量：静息状态下每次正常呼吸时进出肺的气体体积，成年人通常约为 0.5 dm³。
Vital capacity: The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation; it represents the total usable lung volume.
肺活量：尽最大努力吸气后所能呼出的最大气体体积，代表肺部可用的总容积。
10. Infectious Disease and Immunity | 传染病与免疫
Pathogen: A microorganism or agent, such as a bacterium, virus, fungus or protist, that causes disease in its host.
病原体：能引起宿主疾病的微生物或因子，如细菌、病毒、真菌或原生生物。
Antigen: A molecule, often a protein on the surface of a pathogen, that is recognised by the immune system as foreign and triggers an immune response.
抗原：被免疫系统识别为外来物的分子，通常是病原体表面的蛋白质，能触发免疫应答。
Antibody: A Y-shaped glycoprotein produced by B lymphocytes (plasma cells) that specifically binds to a complementary antigen, marking it for destruction.
抗体：由 B 淋巴细胞（浆细胞）产生的 Y 形糖蛋白，能与互补的抗原特异性结合，标记其以便清除。
Phagocytosis: The process by which phagocytes (e.g. neutrophils and macrophages) engulf and digest pathogens or debris; a non-specific immune defence.
吞噬作用：吞噬细胞（如中性粒细胞和巨噬细胞）包裹并消化病原体或碎屑的过程，属于非特异性免疫防御。
Vaccination: The administration of an antigenic material (weakened or killed pathogen, or its products) to stimulate an individual's adaptive immune system and produce memory cells, providing long-term immunity.
疫苗接种：接种抗原物质（减毒或灭活的病原体或其产物），以刺激个体的适应性免疫系统并产生记忆细胞，从而提供长期免疫力。
Antibiotic: A chemical substance, often produced by microorganisms, that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria; it is ineffective against viruses.
抗生素：通常由微生物产生的化学物质，能杀死或抑制细菌生长；但对病毒无效。
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