📚 Pre-U WJEC Media: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Pre-U WJEC 媒体：公式定理速查手册
This concise handbook summarises the essential theoretical models, formulas, and conceptual ‘theorems’ that every Pre-U WJEC Media student must master. From classic communication models to contemporary media theories, each entry is distilled into its core proposition, components, and application to media texts. Use this guide for quick revision, essay planning, and systematic understanding of the key frameworks examined in the WJEC specification.
这本速查手册归纳了每位 Pre-U WJEC 媒体学生都必须掌握的核心理论模型、公式和概念性“定理”。从经典的传播模型到当代媒体理论，每个条目都浓缩为其核心命题、组成部分及对媒体文本的应用。使用本指南进行快速复习、论文规划和系统理解 WJEC 考试大纲中的关键框架。
1. Lasswell's Communication Model | 拉斯韦尔传播模式
Harold Lasswell's linear model (1948) distils the act of communication into five interrogative components: Who (communicator) says What (message) in Which channel (medium) to Whom (audience) with What effect (outcome). This one-way, transmission-oriented formula underscores early mass media research, emphasising sender control and measurable influence. The model's simplicity makes it a foundational heuristic for analysing propaganda, advertising, and news broadcasts, though it neglects feedback, noise, and context.
哈罗德·拉斯韦尔的线性模式（1948）将传播行为浓缩为五个疑问成分：谁（传播者）说了什么（讯息）通过什么渠道（媒介）向谁（受众）产生什么效果（结果）。这种单向的、以传输为导向的公式突显了早期大众媒体研究，强调传者控制和可测量的影响。该模型的简单性使其成为分析宣传、广告和新闻广播的基础启发工具，尽管它忽略了反馈、噪音和语境。
2. Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication | 香农—韦弗传播模式
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) proposed a mathematical theory of communication involving: Information source → Transmitter → Channel → Receiver → Destination, with Noise as any interference disrupting the signal during transmission. This model introduced the concept of entropy (uncertainty) and redundancy (predictability) as measurable quantities. In media studies, it highlights how technical, semantic, or psychological noise can distort a message between encoding and decoding, prompting interest in transmission fidelity and audience misinterpretation.
克劳德·香农和沃伦·韦弗（1949）提出了一个数学化的传播理论，涉及：信源 → 发射器 → 信道 → 接收器 → 信宿，并将噪音视为传输过程中干扰信号的任何因素。该模型引入了熵（不确定性）和冗余（可预测性）作为可测量的量。在媒体研究中，它凸显了技术性、语义性或心理性噪音如何在编码与解码之间扭曲讯息，从而引起人们对传输保真度和受众误解的关注。
3. Semiotics: Saussure's Signifier and Signified | 符号学：索绪尔的能指与所指
Ferdinand de Saussure defined the linguistic sign as a two-sided psychological entity: Signifier (sound-image or word) + Signified (concept). The relationship between them is arbitrary and governed by social convention. This formula underpins structuralist media analysis: meaning is not inherent but constructed through systems of difference. When applied to visual media, the signifier might be a camera angle, colour palette, or costume, while the signified is the cultural concept it evokes—power, innocence, otherness, etc.
费尔迪南·德·索绪尔将语言符号定义为一个双面的心理实体：能指（声音形象或词语）+ 所指（概念）。二者之间的关系是任意的并受社会规约支配。这一公式支撑了结构主义媒体分析：意义并非内在固有，而是通过差异系统构建的。当应用于视觉媒体时，能指可以是摄影角度、色彩调色板或服装，而所指则是其唤起的文化概念——权力、纯真、他异性等。
4. Barthes' Orders of Signification: Denotation and Connotation | 巴特的意指层次：外延与内涵
Roland Barthes extended semiotics by proposing a two-order system. The first order is denotation: the literal, descriptive meaning of a sign (what is photographed). The second order is connotation: the socio-cultural and ideological associations attached to the sign. Barthes later added myth as a third-order metalanguage that naturalises ideological meanings, making historically specific values appear timeless and universal. Media texts often operate on these layered levels—a photograph of a national flag denotes a piece of fabric but connotes patriotism, sacrifice, or imperial history.
罗兰·巴特通过提出一个双层系统拓展了符号学。第一层次是外延：符号的字面描述性意义（所拍摄之物）。第二层次是内涵：附着于符号的社会文化和意识形态联想。巴特后来又增加了神话作为第三层次的元语言，它将意识形态意义自然化，使历史上特定的价值观显得永恒和普遍。媒体文本常在这些层层叠叠的层面上运作——一面国旗的照片外延为一块织物，却内涵着爱国主义、牺牲或帝国历史。
5. Propp's Character Functions | 普罗普的角色功能
Vladimir Propp analysed Russian folktales and identified 31 narrative functions, but his most enduring contribution for media studies is the 7 character archetypes (or ‘spheres of action’): Hero, Villain, Donor, Helper, Princess (sought-for person), Dispatcher, False Hero. The formula holds that characters are defined not by psychology but by their narrative function. This structuralist toolkit is widely applied to film, television drama, and video game narratives, revealing how stock characters sustain genre conventions and audience expectations.
弗拉基米尔·普罗普分析了俄罗斯民间故事，确定了 31 种叙事功能，但他对媒体研究最持久的贡献是七种角色原型（或“行动领域”）：英雄、反派、赠予者、帮手、公主（被追寻者）、派遣者、假英雄。该公式认为，角色不由心理决定，而由其叙事功能决定。这套结构主义工具被广泛应用于电影、电视剧和电子游戏叙事，揭示了定型角色如何维持体裁惯例和观众期待。
6. Todorov's Narrative Structure | 托多罗夫的叙事结构
Tzvetan Todorov proposed that narratives follow a fundamental equilibrium-disequilibrium-restoration pattern. The formula: les) → Recognition of disruption → Attempt to repair → New equilibrium (often transformed). This five-stage model emphasises that narrative is a causal transformation, not merely a sequence of events. It is a powerful lens for analysing mainstream cinema, news stories, and television episodes, where disruption drives enigma and audience engagement.
茨维坦·托多罗夫提出，叙事遵循一个基本的“平衡—失衡—恢复”模式。公式为：平衡（稳定秩序）→ 破坏（扰乱性事件）→ 意识到破坏 → 尝试修复 → 新平衡（通常已改变）。这一五阶段模型强调叙事是一种因果转变，而不仅仅是事件的序列。它是分析主流电影、新闻报道和电视剧集的得力透镜，其中破坏推动了谜团和观众参与。
7. Lévi-Strauss' Binary Oppositions | 列维-施特劳斯的二元对立
Claude Lévi-Strauss argued that myths and cultural products derive meaning from underlying binary oppositions such as good/evil, nature/culture, masculine/feminine, us/them. These structural contrasts form the deep grammar of narratives and worldviews. In media analysis, identifying such oppositions within a text—e.g., law enforcer vs. outlaw, young vs. old, rational vs. emotional—exposes the ideological conflicts that the narrative attempts to resolve or reconcile, often privileging one term over the other.
克劳德·列维-施特劳斯认为，神话和文化产品从深层二元对立中获取意义，如善/恶、自然/文化、男性/女性、我们/他们。这些结构性对比构成了叙事和世界观的深层语法。在媒体分析中，识别文本内部的这种对立——例如执法者与亡命徒、青年与老年、理性与情感——揭示了叙事试图解决或调和的意识形态冲突，且常常赋予其中一项特权的地位。
8. Uses and Gratifications Theory | 使用与满足理论
Blumler and Katz (1974) shifted the focus from ‘What media do to people’ to ‘What people do with media’. Their model posits that audiences actively select media to fulfil certain needs: Information (surveillance), Personal identity, Integration and social interaction, Entertainment (diversion). The ‘ rly useful for analysing contemporary interactive media, social platforms, and fan communities, where user agency is central.
布卢姆勒和卡茨（1974）将重点从“媒体对人做了什么”转向“人们用媒体做了什么”。他们的模型主张，受众主动选择媒体以满足特定需求：信息（监视）、个人身份认同、整合与社交互动、娱乐（消遣）。使用与满足的“公式”是一个主动受众方程：受众动机 + 媒介选择 = 需求满足。对于分析当代互动媒体、社交平台和粉丝社群（用户能动性在其中至关重要）尤为有用。
9. Stuart Hall's Encoding/Decoding Model | 斯图尔特·霍尔的编码/解码模型
Stuart Hall (1973) reconceptualised communication as a circuit of production, circulation, and reception. The encoding process by producers inscribes preferred meanings into a text, but decoding by audiences can diverge. Hall identified three decoding positions: Dominant-hegemonic (accepting the preferred meaning), Negotiated (partially accepting, partially opposing), and Oppositional s a formula of potential semiotic struggle: Meaning = Encoding intent × Decoding position.
斯图尔特·霍尔（1973）将传播重新概念化为生产、流通和接收的循环。生产者通过编码过程将偏好意义铭刻于文本，但受众的解码可能产生分歧。霍尔确定了三种解码立场：主导—霸权式（接受偏好意义）、协商式（部分接受、部分反对）和对抗式（完全拒绝预期意义）。该模型引入了一个潜在的符号学斗争公式：意义 = 编码意图 × 解码立场。
10. Agenda-Setting Theory | 议程设置理论
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw (1972) formulated agenda-setting theory, asserting that the media may not tell people what to think, but are stunningly successful in telling them what to think about. The core formula is: Media agenda → Public agenda. The salience of issues on the media agenda transfers to the public agenda through frequency of coverage, placement, and framing. Second-level agenda-setting extends this to attribute salience, influencing how audiences perceive the characteristics of issues or individuals.
麦克斯韦尔·麦库姆斯和唐纳德·肖（1972）提出了议程设置理论，主张媒体或许不能告诉人们该思考什么，却在告诉人们该思考什么方面极其成功。核心公式为：媒体议程 → 公众议程。媒体议程中议题的显著性通过报道频率、版位和框架转移到公众议程。第二层议程设置将其扩展至属性显著性，影响受众如何感知议题或个体的特征。
11. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner) | 涵化理论（格伯纳）
George Gerbner's cultivation theory argues that heavy, long-term exposure to television gradually shapes viewers' perceptions of social reality, cultivating a worldview that mirrors the repetitive patterns of TV content. The key relationship: TV exposure (dose) × Mainstreaming + Resonance → Perceived reality. Mainstreaming describes the convergence of diverse viewers' outlooks toward a common, televised norm, while resonance occurs when personal experience aligns with TV's portrayals, amplifying the cultivation effect. It is particularly applied to studies of violence, gender roles, and political attitudes.
乔治·格伯纳的涵化理论认为，长期大量接触电视会逐渐塑造观众对社会现实的感知，涵化出一种与电视内容重复模式相镜像的世界观。关键关系：电视接触（剂量）× 主流化 + 共振 → 感知现实。主流化描述的是不同观众的观点向一种共同的电视化常态趋同，而共振则发生在个人经历与电视描绘相吻合时，从而放大涵化效应。该理论特别应用于对暴力、性别角色和政治态度的研究。
12. Baudrillard's Hyperreality and Simulacra | 鲍德里亚的超真实与拟像
Jean Baudrillard theorised a four-stage progression of the sign: 1) Reflection of a basic reality, 2) Perversion of reality, 3) Pretence of reality (where the sign masks the absence of a basic reality), 4) Simulacrum—no relation to any reality whatsoever. The formula for hyperreality emerges when the simulation becomes more real than the real, generating a ‘desert of the real’. Media texts such as reality TV, deepfakes, and immersive video games exemplify this collapse between representation and reality, challenging the very notion of authenticity.
让·鲍德里亚理论化了符号的四个阶段递进：1) 反映基本现实，2) 歪曲现实，3) 伪装现实（符号掩盖了基本现实的缺席），4) 拟像——与任何现实均无关联。当仿真变得比真实更真实时，超真实的公式便出现了，形成了一个“真实的荒漠”。真人秀、深度伪造和沉浸式电子游戏等媒体文本体现了表征与现实之间的这种坍塌，挑战了真实性的根本概念。
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