📚 Pre-U WJEC Philosophy: Quick Glossary Memorisation Guide | Pre-U WJEC 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Pre-U WJEC Philosophy demands a confident grasp of technical vocabulary across epistemology, ethics, philosophy of religion, and metaphysics of mind. This quick memorisation guide breaks down essential terms with clear definitions, vivid examples, and practical mnemonics to help you recall them swiftly in exams and essays.
Pre-U WJEC 哲学要求学生在认识论、伦理学、宗教哲学和心灵形而上学等核心领域熟练掌握专业术语。这份速记指南通过清晰的定义、生动的例子和实用的记忆法，帮助你在考试和论文写作中迅速提取关键概念。
1. Epistemology | 认识论
A priori: Knowledge justified entirely independently of sense experience (e.g., knowing all bachelors are unmarried). The term literally means 'from the earlier' in Latin. Mnemonic: think 'prior' to any observation.
先验：完全独立于感官经验而证成的知识（例如知道所有单身汉都未婚）。该词拉丁语意为“从更早的”。记忆法：想想在观察之“前”就已经知道了。
A posteriori: Knowledge dependent on sense experience or empirical evidence (e.g., knowing it is raining outside). Latin for 'from the later'. Mnemonic: you need to look post (after) the event.
后验：依赖于感官经验或实证证据的知识（例如知道外面在下雨）。拉丁语意为“从后来的”。记忆法：你需要在事件之“后”才能知道。
Analytic: A statement true solely by virtue of the meanings of its words, such as 'All triangles have three sides'. The predicate is contained within the subject. Mnemonic: analyse the words and the truth falls out without checking the world.
分析命题：仅凭词义即为真的陈述，例如“所有三角形都有三条边”。谓语已经包含在主语中。记忆法：分析一下词义，真相便自动显现，无需查看世界。
Synthetic: A statement whose truth depends on how the world actually is, e.g., 'The cat is on the mat'. It adds information not contained in the subject alone. Mnemonic: you have to synthesise (combine) concepts with observations.
综合命题：其真假取决于世界实际情况的陈述，例如“猫在垫子上”。它增加了主语本身不包含的信息。记忆法：你需要把概念和观察“综合”起来。
Justified true belief (JTB): Plato's three-part definition of knowledge: a person S knows proposition P if and only if S believes P, P is true, and S has adequate justification for believing P. Mnemonic: 'Just Think, Believe!' (Justification, Truth, Belief).
证成真信念（JTB）：柏拉图对知识的三要素定义：某人 S 知道命题 P，当且仅当 S 相信 P，P 为真，并且 S 拥有充分的证成相信 P。记忆法：“理由（证成）、真实、信念”缺一不可。
Gettier case: A thought experiment where someone holds a justified true belief yet intuitively lacks knowledge because the belief is only true by luck (e.g., a stopped clock that happens to show the right time). Mnemonic: Gettier gets you with lucky coincidence.
盖梯尔案例：一种思想实验，某人持有证成真信念，却因运气恰巧成真而缺少知识（例如停了的钟刚好显示对的时间）。记忆法：盖梯尔用运气巧合让你翻车。
Rationalism Leibniz). Knowledge can be gained through intellectual intuition and deduction. Mnemonic: 'ratio' = reason, so rationalists rate reason.
理性主义：认识论立场，认为理性是知识的主要来源和检验标准（笛卡尔、斯宾诺莎、莱布尼茨）。知识可通过理智直观和演绎获得。记忆法：“ratio”意为理性，理性主义者推崇理性。
Empiricism: The view that all knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience (Locke, Berkeley, Hume). The mind begins as a 'blank slate'. Mnemonic: empirical evidence is what you experience.
经验主义：主张一切知识最终源于感官经验的观点（洛克、贝克莱、休谟）。心灵起初是一块“白板”。记忆法：经验证据就是你亲身体验到的东西。
2. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Ontological argument: An a priori argument for the existence of God, proceeding from the very concept of a perfect being to the conclusion that such a being must exist (Anselm, Descartes). Mnemonic: 'Onto' logic — talking God into existence through pure thought.
本体论论证：一种先验的上帝存在论证，从完美存在者的概念本身推导出该存在者必然存在（安瑟伦、笛卡尔）。记忆法：本体论——“本体”是“纯粹通过在头脑里思考把上帝论出来”。
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori ence of the cosmos or contingent beings to a necessary first cause or prime mover (Aquinas' Five Ways). Mnemonic: 'cosmos' = universe; the argument starts with the universe and works backwards.
宇宙论论证：一种后验论证，从宇宙或偶然事物的存在推论出一个必然的第一因或第一推动者（阿奎那的五路）。记忆法：“宇宙”是出发点，由果溯因。
Teleological argument (Design argument): The argument that the order, complexity, and apparent purpose in nature imply a divine designer (Paley's watchmaker analogy). 'Telos' means end or purpose in Greek. Mnemonic: nature looks designed, so there must be a Designer.
目的论论证（设计论证）：认为自然界中的秩序、复杂性和明显的目的指向一位神圣设计者（佩利的手表匠类比）。“Telos”在希腊语中意为目的。记忆法：自然看起来像被设计过的，因此必定有设计者。
Problem of evil: The challenge that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God seems incompatible with the existence of gratuitous evil and suffering. Comes in logical form (contradiction) and evidential form (improbability). Mnemonic: evil makes the all-good God look impossible.
恶的问题：如果存在一位全能全善的上帝，怎会还有无端恶与苦难的难题。有逻辑形式（矛盾）和证据形式（可能性极低）。记忆法：恶让全善的上帝看起来站不住脚。
Theodicy: A defence of God's goodness and justice in the face of evil, such as the free will defence or soul-making theodicy. The term comes from Greek theos (God) and dikē (justice). Mnemonic: Theo-dicy = God's justice attempt.
神正论：在恶面前为上帝的善和正义所作的辩护，例如自由意志辩护或灵魂锻造神正论。该词来自希腊语“神”与“正义”。记忆法：神正论就是试图论证“神的正义”。
Verification principle: The logical positivist criterion of meaning, asserting that a statement is factually meaningful only if it is either analytically true or empirically verifiable (A.J. Ayer). Religious language often fails this test. Mnemonic: you must be able to check it with your senses or logic.
可证实性原则：逻辑实证主义的意义标准，主张一个陈述在事实上具有意义，仅当它是分析为真或可被经验证实（艾耶尔）。宗教语言往往通不过该检验。记忆法：要么能靠感官证实，要么能靠逻辑推出来，否则无意义。
Falsification: Anthony Flew's idea that religious statements are 'death by a thousand qualifications' because believers refuse to allow anything to count decisively against their claims, making them unfalsifiable and cognitively meaningless. Mnemonic: a claim that can survive any test is not a genuine factual claim.
可证伪性：弗卢的观点，宗教陈述由于信徒不断添加限制条件，导致没有任何东西可以决定性地证伪它们，从而成为无认知意义的说法。记忆法：一个永远无法被证明为假的宣称，并不算真正的事实宣称。
3. Ethics | 伦理学
Utilitarianism: The consequentialist theory that the morally right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure and minimises pain (Bentham's hedonic calculus, Mill's higher pleasures). Mnemonic: you
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