📚 Pre-U CIE Sociology: Quick Glossary Guide for Key Terms | Pre-U CIE 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociology at the Pre-U level demands a firm grasp of discipline-specific terminology. This glossary breaks down essential concepts into bite-sized, bilingual explanations, helping you recall definitions swiftly and apply them with precision in essays and source-based questions. Each section targets a core area of the Cambridge International Pre-U syllabus, pairing crisp English definitions with fluent Chinese translations to reinforce learning and reduce cognitive load during revision.
掌握 Pre-U 阶段的社会学，需要扎实掌握学科术语。这份词汇表将核心概念拆解成精炼的双语解释，帮助你在论文和材料题中快速回忆定义、准确运用。每个小节围绕剑桥国际 Pre-U 考纲的核心领域展开，以清晰的英文定义搭配流畅的中文翻译，强化记忆，减轻复习时的认知负担。
1. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society. It shapes personal identity and ensures cultural continuity. Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood within the family, while secondary socialisation happens later through schools, peer groups, and the media.
社会化是个体习得社会规范、价值观和角色的终身过程。它塑造个人身份认同，并确保文化的延续。初级社会化发生在幼年时期的家庭内部，次级社会化则随后通过学校、同伴群体和媒体进行。
Norms: Socially accepted rules of behaviour that guide everyday actions, such as queuing or saying 'thank you'. Sanctions, both positive and negative, reinforce norms.
规范：社会接受的行为准则，引导日常举动，例如排队或说“谢谢”。正面和负面的制裁会强化规范。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is desirable, good, or important, such as honesty, equality, or respect for authority. Values underpin norms.
价值观：关于什么是可取、美好或重要的深层信念，如诚实、平等或尊重权威。价值观支撑着规范。
Role: The expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular social position, for instance, the role of a student involves attending lessons, completing assignments, and following school rules.
角色：与特定社会位置相联系的预期行为模式，例如学生角色包括上课、完成作业和遵守校规。
Identity: An individual's sense of self, shaped by social interactions and group memberships. Identities can be hybrid, fluid, and contested.
身份认同：个体对自我的感受，由社会互动和群体归属塑造而成。身份认同可以是混合的、流动的，并受到争议。
2. Culture and Subculture | 文化与亚文化
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a society, including language, beliefs, customs, and material objects. Sociologists distinguish between high culture, popular culture, and subcultures, each carrying different status and power implications.
文化指一个社会的整体生活方式，包括语言、信仰、习俗和物质对象。社会学家区分高雅文化、流行文化和亚文化，每种文化都带有不同的地位和权力意涵。
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that holds distinct norms, values, or styles, such as skaters, goths, or hip-hop communities. Subcultures often provide members with a sense of belonging and resistance to mainstream culture.
亚文化：大文化内部的一个群体，拥有独特的规范、价值观或风格，如滑板族、哥特族或嘻哈社群。亚文化常常带给成员归属感，并表达对主流文化的抵抗。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu): Non-economic resources such as knowledge, tastes, and educational credentials that confer social advantage. Middle-class children often inherit cultural capital that aligns with the education system.
文化资本（布迪厄）：非经济资源，如知识、品味和教育文凭，能够带来社会优势。中产阶级子女往往继承与教育体系相契合的文化资本。
Folkways and mores: Folkways are informal norms governing everyday conduct, like table manners; mores are deeply held moral norms whose violation provokes strong disapproval, such as prohibitions against theft.
民俗与民德：民俗是管理日常行为的非正式规范，如表礼仪；民德是深植的道德规范，违反会引发强烈谴责，如对偷窃的禁令。
3. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Stratification describes how society is organised into hierarchical layers shaped by factors such as class, gender, ethnicity, and age. Sociologists investigate the extent to which social positions are ascribed or achieved, and how inequalities are reproduced over time.
分层描述社会如何按阶级、性别、种族和年龄等因素组织成等级层次。社会学家研究社会地位在多大程度上是先赋的还是自致的，以及不平等如何随时间被再生产。
Social class: A grouping based on economic position, often measured by occupation, income, and wealth. Classic models distinguish between upper, middle, and working classes, though contemporary sociologists note greater fragmentation.
社会阶级：基于经济地位的群体划分，通常以职业、收入和财富来衡量。经典模型区分上层、中层和工人阶级，但当代社会学家注意到更细的分化。
Ascribed status: A social position assigned at birth or involuntarily, such as race, sex, or royal lineage. Ascribed statuses can limit or enhance life chances independently of individual effort.
先赋地位：出生时或被非自愿赋予的社会位置，如种族、性别或皇室血统。先赋地位可以独立于个人努力限制或提升生活机会。
Social mobility: Movement of individuals or groups between different socio-economic positions. Intra-generational mobility occurs within a person's lifetime, while inter-generational mobility compares parents' and children's positions.
社会流动：个人或群体在不同社会经济位置之间的移动。代内流动发生在个人一生中，代际流动则比较父母与子女的地位。
Meritocracy: An ideal system where rewards and positions are allocated solely on the basis of talent and effort. Sociologists critique the extent to which real societies actually function as meritocracies.
功绩主义：一个理想系统，其中奖赏和位置完全基于才能和努力来分配。社会学家批评现实社会在多大程度上真的像功绩社会一样运作。
4. Family and Household | 家庭与住户
Families are central to primary socialisation, emotional support, and economic cooperation. While the nuclear family is often presented as the traditional norm, contemporary family forms include extended, lone-parent, reconstituted, and same-sex families. A household refers to a person living alone or a group sharing living arrangements, not necessarily linked by kinship.
家庭对初级社会化、情感支持和经济合作至关重要。核心家庭常被视为传统规范，但当代家庭形式包括扩展家庭、单亲家庭、重组家庭和同性家庭。住户指单独居住或共享居住安排的一群人，不一定由亲属关系联结。
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of parents and their dependent children. Functionalists see it as a universal institution fulfilling essential functions; critics highlight its diversity and internal inequalities.
核心家庭：由父母及其受抚养子女组成的两代家庭单位。功能论者视其为满足基本功能的普遍制度；批评者则强调其多样性和内部不平等。
Extended family: A family grouping that includes relatives beyond the nuclear core, such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles, often living in close proximity or sharing resources. Common in many pre-industrial and collectivist cultures.
扩展家庭：超出核心家庭的亲属群体，包括祖父母、叔伯阿姨等，通常住得很近或共享资源。在许多前工业和集体主义文化中常见。
Conjugal roles: The domestic and economic roles of married or cohabiting partners. Segregated roles involve clear division of labour (male breadwinner, female homemaker), while joint roles mean greater sharing of housework and decision-making.
夫妻角色：已婚或同居伴侣的家庭与经济角色。隔离角色意味着明确的劳动分工（男性养家、女性持家），而联合角色意味着家务和决策的更多共享。
5. Education and Attainment | 教育与成就
Education transmits knowledge, skills, and cultural values, but sociologists also view it as an agent of socialisation, selection, and social reproduction. Persistent patterns of differential attainment by social class, gender, and ethnicity remain central topics in the sociology of education.
教育传递知识、技能和文化价值观，但社会学家也将其视为社会化、筛选和社会再生产的机构。按社会阶级、性别和种族划分的差异化成就的持久模式，仍是教育社会学的核心议题。
Hidden curriculum: The informal, unstated lessons taught in school, such as obedience to authority, punctuality, and acceptance of hierarchy. It quietly prepares pupils for the world of work, according to functionalists and Marxists alike, though they evaluate its effects differently.
隐性课程：学校中非正式、未明言的教导，如服从权威、守时和接纳等级制。功能论者和马克思主义者都认为它默默地为学生走入职场做准备，尽管他们对效果的评估不同。
Labelling (Becker): The process by which teachers attach meanings and expectations to pupils, often on the basis of stereotypes about class or ethnicity. Labels can become self-fulfilling prophecies, influencing students' self-concept and attainment.
标签理论（贝克尔）：教师根据关于阶级或种族的刻板印象，赋予学生意义和期望的过程。标签可能成为自我实现的预言，影响学生的自我概念和成就。
Material deprivation and cultural deprivation: Material deprivation refers to a lack of physical resources (income, housing, educational materials). Cultural deprivation suggests that some home backgrounds lack the values, attitudes, and language skills needed for educational success.
物质剥夺与文化剥夺：物质剥夺指缺乏物质资源（收入、住房、教育材料）。文化剥夺则认为，某些家庭背景缺乏教育成功所需的价值观、态度和语言技能。
6. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance is behaviour that violates social norms, while crime specifically breaks formal legal rules. Sociologists investigate the social construction of rules, patterns of offending and victimisation, and the role of agencies of social control. Official statistics may mask the 'dark figure' of unreported crime.
越轨是违反社会规范的行为，而犯罪特指违反正式法律规则。社会学家研究规则的社会建构、犯罪与受害的模式，以及社会控制机构的作用。官方统计可能掩盖未报案犯罪的“黑数”。
Anomie (Durkheim): A condition of normlessness or social deregulation, often arising during rapid social change. Durkheim linked anomie to heightened suicide rates, but the concept is also applied to crime: when rules weaken, deviance may increase.
失范（涂尔干）：一种规范缺失或社会失序的状况，常发生于快速社会变迁时期。涂尔干将失范与较高的自杀率相联系，但这一概念也被用于犯罪：当规范弱化，越轨可能增加。
Control theory (Hirschi): The view that strong social bonds—attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief—prevent individuals from offending. People deviate when these bonds are weak or broken.
控制理论（赫希）：认为强大的社会纽带——依附、承诺、参与和信念——阻止个人犯罪。当这些纽带薄弱或断裂时，人们就会越轨。
Moral panic (Cohen): An exaggerated societal reaction to a group or behaviour perceived as a threat to social values, often amplified by the media. Moral panics can produce deviance amplification and scapegoating of subcultures.
道德恐慌（科恩）：社会对视为威胁社会价值观的群体或行为的过度反应，常被媒体放大。道德恐慌会引起越轨放大和对亚文化的替罪羊化。
7. Research Methods | 研究方法
Sociological research requires systematic methods to produce valid, reliable, and ethical data. The choice between quantitative and qualitative approaches reflects theoretical preferences: positivists favour measurable social facts, while interpretivists seek to understand subjective meanings. Mixed-methods designs are increasingly common.
社会学研究需要系统的方法来产生有效、可靠且符合伦理的数据。定量与定性方法之间的选择反映理论倾向：实证主义者偏好可测量的社会事实，而阐释主义者则寻求理解主观意义。混合方法设计越来越普遍。
Validity: The extent to which a research instrument measures what it claims to measure. A valid study genuinely captures the social reality it investigates. Qualitative methods are often seen as high in validity because they yield deep, nuanced data.
效度：研究工具在多大程度上测量它声称要测量的东西。有效的研究能真实地捕捉其所研究的社会现实。定性方法常被视为效度较高，因为它们产生深刻、细致的数据。
Reliability: The consistency and replicability of findings. If a study is reliable, repeating it under similar conditions should produce similar results. Large-scale surveys typically score high on reliability.
信度：研究结果的一致性和可复制性。如果一项研究是可靠的，在相似条件下重复它应该产生相似的结果。大规模问卷调查通常在信度上得分较高。
Triangulation: Using two or more methods, theories, or data sources to cross-check findings, increasing confidence in the results. For example, combining classroom observation with teacher interviews.
三角验证：使用两种或以上的方法、理论或数据来源来交叉核对发现，增加对结果的信心。例如，将课堂观察与教师访谈相结合。
Ethical considerations: Principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and avoidance of harm. Sociologists must balance the pursuit of knowledge with the rights and wellbeing of participants.
伦理考量：诸如知情同意、保密、匿名和避免伤害等原则。社会学家必须在追求知识与参与者的权利和福祉之间取得平衡。
8. Sociological Perspectives | 社会学理论视角
Major theoretical traditions provide distinct lenses for analysing society. Functionalism views society as a stable system of interrelated parts; conflict theories emphasise power, inequality, and social change; interpretivism focuses on micro-level interactions and the construction of meaning. Familiarity with these perspectives is essential for top-band essays.
主要理论传统提供了分析社会的不同透镜。功能论视社会为一个相互关联的稳定系统；冲突理论强调权力、不平等和社会变迁；阐释主义则关注微观层面的互动和意义的建构。熟悉这些视角对取得高分论文至关重要。
Functionalism: A consensus perspective seeing society as an organism where institutions (family, education, religion) serve vital functions, promoting social solidarity and value consensus. Key thinkers: Durkheim, Parsons.
功能论：一种共识视角，将社会看作一个有机体，其中的制度（家庭、教育、宗教）发挥着维持社会团结和价值共识的维生功能。关键思想家：涂尔干、帕森斯。
Marxism: A conflict perspective arguing that the economic base (infrastructure) shapes the superstructure (ideology, law, politics). Class struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat drives historical change. Key concepts: false consciousness, alienation, ideology.
马克思主义：一种冲突视角，主张经济基础（下层建筑）塑造上层建筑（意识形态、法律、政治）。资产阶级与无产阶级之间的阶级斗争驱动历史变迁。关键概念：虚假意识、异化、意识形态。
Feminism: A conflict perspective focusing on patriarchy—the systematic domination of women by men. Liberal feminism advocates legal and political reforms; radical feminism targets the patriarchal family; intersectional feminism highlights overlapping oppressions of gender, race, and class.
女性主义：一种冲突视角，关注父权制——男性对女性的系统性支配。自由派女性主义主张法律和政治改革；激进女性主义瞄准父权家庭；交叉派女性主义则强调性别、种族和阶级的交叉压迫。
Symbolic interactionism: A micro-sociological perspective emphasising that society is constructed through everyday interactions, symbols, and meanings. Roles and identities are negotiated performances, not fixed structures.
符号互动论：一种微观社会学视角，强调社会通过日常互动、符号和意义建构而成。角色和身份认同是协商的表演，而非固定的结构。
9. Power and Politics | 权力与政治
Political sociology examines how power is distributed, exercised, and legitimated. It covers the state, citizenship, social movements, and the role of the media in shaping political consciousness. Weber's definition of power as the ability to impose one's will even against resistance remains foundational.
政治社会学考察权力如何被分配、行使和合法化。它涵盖国家、公民身份、社会运动以及媒体在塑造政治意识方面的作用。韦伯将权力定义为即使遇到抵制也能强加自身意志的能力，这一定义仍是基础。
Authority (Weber): Legitimate power that people willingly accept. Weber identified three ideal types: traditional (based on custom), charismatic (based on a leader's extraordinary qualities), and legal-rational (based on formal rules and procedures).
权威（韦伯）：人们自愿接受的合法权力。韦伯确定了三种理想类型：传统型（基于习俗）、魅力型（基于领袖的非凡特质）和法理型（基于正式规则和程序）。
Citizenship (Marshall): A status entailing civil, political, and social rights. Marshall argued that social rights (welfare, education) are necessary for full citizenship, though they remain contested.
公民身份（马歇尔）：一种包含民事、政治和社会权利的地位。马歇尔认为，社会权利（福利、教育）对完整公民身份是必需的，尽管它们仍存争议。
Pluralism: A theory suggesting that power is widely dispersed among competing interest groups, preventing any single elite from dominating. Critics argue that some groups have disproportionate resources and access.
多元主义：一种理论，认为权力广泛分散在相互竞争的利益集团之间，阻止任何单一精英集团主宰。批评者指出，某些集团拥有不成比例的资源与接触渠道。
10. Religion and Belief | 宗教与信仰
Religion is a cultural system of beliefs, rituals, and symbols relating humanity to a supernatural or moral order. Sociologists examine its role in social cohesion, social control, and social change. Secularisation, fundamentalism, and the rise of new religious movements signal ongoing transformations in belief systems.
宗教是一种将人类与超自然或道德秩序联系起来的文化体系，包括信仰、仪式和符号。社会学家研究其在社会凝聚、社会控制和社会变迁中的作用。世俗化、原教旨主义和新宗教运动的兴起，标志着信仰体系的持续转变。
Sacred and profane (Durkheim): The sacred consists of objects, places, or ideas set apart and treated with reverence; the profane constitutes ordinary, everyday elements. Religious rituals bind communities by collectively marking the sacred.
神圣与世俗（涂尔干）：神圣包括被分隔出来、受尊崇的物体、地点或观念；世俗则构成普通的日常要素。宗教仪式通过集体标识神圣来凝聚社群。
Secularisation: The process by which religious thinking, practice, and institutions lose social significance. Indicators include declining church attendance, reduced religious authority, and the disenchantment of time and space.
世俗化：宗教思维、实践和制度失去社会重要性的过程。指标包括教堂出席率下降、宗教权威减弱，以及时间与空间的祛魅。
Religious pluralism: A situation where multiple religious traditions coexist in a society, often resulting from migration and globalisation. It can foster tolerance but also spark competition and conflict over public space and values.
宗教多元主义：一个社会中多种宗教传统共存的情况，通常源于移民和全球化。它既能培育宽容，也可能在公共空间和价值观上引发竞争与冲突。
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