📚 Pre-U Edexcel Psychology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memory Guide | Pre-U Edexcel 心理学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the terminology of Pre-U Edexcel Psychology is like learning the grammar of a new language – it unlocks your ability to describe, explain, and evaluate psychological phenomena precisely. This guide presents essential terms across all major topic areas, grouped by theme, with a dual English-Chinese narrative and memorable tricks to speed up your recall. Whether you are wrestling with research methods, biological mechanisms, cognitive models, or social dynamics, the paired explanations and structured layout will help you store these concepts firmly in long-term memory.
掌握 Pre-U Edexcel 心理学术语，就如同学习一门新语言的语法——它能让你精准描述、解释和评价心理现象。本指南涵盖各核心主题中的关键术语，按主题分类，采用中英双语叙事并配以巧妙的记忆诀窍，帮助你加速记忆。无论你在纠结研究方法、生物机制、认知模型还是社会动力学，这些成对解释和结构化排版都能将这些概念牢固地存入你的长期记忆。
1. Research Methods: Core Concepts | 研究方法：核心概念
An experiment must have a clear independent variable (IV) – the factor you deliberately manipulate – and a dependent variable (DV) – the outcome you measure.
任何实验都必须有一个明确的自变量 (IV)，即你故意操纵的因素，以及一个因变量 (DV)，即你测量的结果。
The IV is the 'cause' and the DV is the 'effect'. Imagine the IV as a music volume knob you turn, while the DV is how loudly people sing along. This cause–effect image links manipulation to measurement.
IV 是“因”，DV 是“果”。可以把 IV 想象成你旋转的音量旋钮，DV 则是人们跟着唱歌的音量大小。这种因果意象将操纵与测量联系起来。
Operationalisation means turning abstract variables into measurable, concrete steps. For example, 'aggression' could be operationalised as the number of times a child hits a doll in a 10-minute session.
操作化指的是将抽象变量转化为可测量的具体步骤。例如，“攻击性”可以被操作化为儿童在10分钟内击打玩偶的次数。
To remember 'operationalise', think of giving your variable a practical 'operation manual' – a clear recipe so anyone could replicate it.
要记住“操作化”，可以想象给你的变量写一份实用的“操作手册”——一份清晰的配方，让任何人都能复制。
Extraneous variables are any other factors that could affect the DV and muddy your results. A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV, making it impossible to tell which one caused the change.
额外变量是指任何可能影响因变量并干扰结果的其他因素。混淆变量是一种特殊的额外变量，它与自变量发生系统共变，导致你无法判断究竟哪个引起了变化。
Picture a tidy experiment as a clear stream. Extraneous variables are like leaves floating on the surface – annoying but often manageable. A confounding variable is a second, hidden stream that merges with yours, permanently clouding the water.
把整洁的实验想象成一条清澈的溪流。额外变量就像水面的浮叶——惹人厌但通常可控。混淆变量则是一条与你汇合的暗流，彻底搅浑了溪水。
2. Variables and Hypotheses | 变量与假设
A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the effect, e.g. 'participants who drink caffeine will recall more words than those who drink water'.
方向性（单尾）假设预测了效应的具体方向，例如“喝咖啡因的参与者将比喝水的参与者回忆出更多单词”。
A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis simply states there will be a difference, without saying which way it will go.
非方向性（双尾）假设仅仅陈述会存在差异，而不指明方向。
Link 'one-tailed' to an arrow pointing only one way, and 'two-tailed' to a two-way sign. When prior research is strong, you can commit to a direction; when it is uncertain, hedge with two tails.
将“单尾”联想为只指向一个方向的箭，“双尾”联想为双向标志。当前期研究有强支撑时，你可以明确方向；当前景不明时，就用双尾来保持谨慎。
The null hypothesis is the assumption that any observed difference is due to chance alone. Every statistical test works by trying to reject the null.
零假设是假定所有观察到的差异都仅由偶然因素造成。任何统计检验都是通过尝试拒绝零假设来运行的。
Think 'null' means 'nothing'. If a detective starts with the assumption of innocence (null), you need strong evidence to convict (reject the null).
把“零”想作“什么都没有”。就像侦探一开始假定嫌疑人无罪（零假设），你需要强有力的证据才能定罪（拒绝零假设）。
3. Reliability and Validity | 信度与效度
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement. If you weigh yourself three times in a row, the scales should give the same reading. Types include test-retest reliability (same test, two time points) and inter-rater reliability (two observers agree).
信度指测量的一致性。如果你连续称体重三次，秤的读数应保持一致。类型包括再测信度（同一测试，两个时间点）和评分者间信度（两位观察者达成一致）。
Link 're-liability' to 'liable to give the same result again'. A reliable friend is consistently there for you, just as a reliable measure is consistently stable.
把“re-liability”与“liable to give the same result again”（有责任再次给出相同结果）联系起来。一个信得过的朋友总是始终如一，一个信度高的测量也是如此稳定。
Validity is about whether you are measuring what you intend to measure. Internal validity asks whether the IV really caused the DV change; external validity asks whether the findings generalise to other settings, populations, and times.
效度关系到你是否测量到了你打算测量的东西。内部效度问的是IV是否真正导致了DV的变化；外部效度问的是研究结果能否推广到其他环境、人群和时间。
Memorise: 'Reliability = Repeatability, Validity = Truth' erfectly reliable (always the same), but not valid because it does not tell the true time.
记忆口诀：“信度 = 可重复性，效度 = 真值”。一只永远停在12:00的钟表信度极高（总是一样的），但效度很低，因为它没有给出真实时间。
4. Sampling and Ethics | 抽样与伦理
A sample is the small group drawn from the target population to take part in a study. The goal is to make the sample representative so that conclusions can be generalised.
样本是从目标总体中抽取出来参与研究的一小群个体。目标在于使样本具备代表性，从而结论可以被推广。
Random sampling gives every member of the population an equal chance of selection. Stratified sampling ensures subgroups (strata) are proportionally represented. Opportunity sampling simply uses whoever is available.
随机抽样使总体中每一位成员拥有均等的被选机会。分层抽样确保各个子群（层）按比例被代表。方便抽样则直接使用最容易接触到的人。
Picture a raffle ticket draw for random sampling; a cake cut into equal slices for stratified; and grabbing the first three people in the corridor for opportunity. This imagery reinforces the process for each method.
想象随机抽奖对应随机抽样；把蛋糕切成等分代表分层；在走廊里抓住碰到的前三人便是方便抽样。这些画面能强化每种方法的操作过程。
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets four key ethical principles: informed consent, deception avoidance/minimisation, right to withdraw, and protection from harm. Researchers must also ensure confidentiality.
英国心理学会 (BPS) 规定了四项核心伦理原则：知情同意、避免/尽量减少欺骗、退出权利以及免受伤害保护。研究者还必须确保保密性。
Use the acronym 'CIDeRs' – Consent, Integrity (no deception), Debriefing (linked to right to withdraw), and Safeguarding (protection from harm). Imagine a glass of sparkling cider that must be ethically brewed.
使用首字母缩略词“CIDeRs”——同意 (Consent)、诚信 (Integrity, 不欺骗)、事后解释 (Debriefing, 关联退出权) 与保护 (Safeguarding, 免受伤害)。想象一杯必须合乎道德酿造的气泡苹果酒 (cider)。
5. Biological Psychology: Neurons and Neurotransmission | 生理心理学：神经元与神经传递
A neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites that receive signals, and an axon that sends signals. The myelin sheath insulates the axon, speeding up transmission.
神经元由细胞体（胞体）、接收信号的树突和发送信号的轴突构成。髓鞘包裹并绝缘轴突，加快了传递速度。
Picture a neuron as a living wire: dendrites are the listening ears, the soma is the control centre, the axon is the long cable, and the myelin sheath is the plastic insulation wrap.
把神经元想象成一条活的电线：树突是接收的耳朵，胞体是控制中心，轴突是长长的线缆，髓鞘则是塑料绝缘包层。
The action potential is a brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon. It follows the 'all-or-none' law – once the threshold of excitation is reached, it fires fully; if not, nothing happens.
动作电位是一种沿轴突行进的短暂电脉冲。它遵循“全或无”定律：一旦达到兴奋阈值，就会完全发放；如果未达到，则毫无动静。
Think of a toilet flush – pressing the handle partway does nothing, but a full push produces a complete flush that cannot be stopped halfway. That is 'all-or-none' in action.
想想冲马桶——手柄按到一半没任何效果，一次完整的按压则会产生无法中途停止的冲水。这就是“全或无”的生动体现。
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released from the terminal buttons of one neuron into the synapse (the tiny gap between neurons). They bind to receptor sites on the next neuron, triggering excitatory or inhibitory signals. Key examples: serotonin (mood), dopamine (reward, motivation), acetylcholine (muscle action, memory).
神经递质是从一个神经元末梢释放到突触（神经元间的微小间隙）中的化学信使。它们与下一个神经元上的受体位点结合，触发兴奋性或抑制性信号。关键例子：血清素（情绪）、多巴胺（奖赏、动机）、乙酰胆碱（肌肉动作、记忆）。
Visualise the synapse as a river, neurotransmitters as little boats carrying messages across. Receptors are the docks that only specific boats can dock at.
把突触想象成一条河，神经递质就是载着信息过河的小船。受体则是只有特定小船才能停靠的码头。
6. Brain Localisation and Plasticity | 大脑功能定位与可塑性
Localisation of function is the idea that specific brain areas are responsible for particular behaviours or cognitive processes. For instance, Broca's area (left frontal lobe) is linked to speech production; Wernicke's area (left temporal lobe) deals with language comprehension.
功能定位是指特定脑区与特定行为或认知过程相对应的理念。例如，布洛卡区（左侧额叶）负责言语产出；韦尼克区（左侧颞叶）处理语言理解。
Use Broca = 'Broken speech' (production failure) and Wernicke = 'Wordy nonsense' (fluent but meaningless speech). The 'B' and 'W' pair with 'babbling' and 'wandering speech'.
用“Broca = Broken speech (破碎话语)”和“Wernicke = Wordy nonsense (喋喋不休的胡话)”来记忆。'B' 和 'W' 分别对应“babbling (咿呀难言)”和“wandering speech (浮游之语)”。
Brain plasticity (or neuroplasticity) refers to the brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This is especially evident after injury, where undamaged areas may take over lost functions.
大脑可塑性（或神经可塑性）指大脑在一生中通过形成新的神经连接来重组自身的能力。这在受伤后尤为明显，未受损的区域可能会接管丧失的功能。
Think of the brain as a dynamic road network: if a main road is blocked, traffic quickly finds alternative routes – plasticity is the brain's re-routing system.
把大脑看作一个动态的道路网络：如果主干道被堵，车流会迅速找到替代路线——可塑性就是大脑的改道系统。
Hemispheric lateralisation is the tendency for some functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere than another. Language is typically left-lateralised (Broca's and Wernicke's), while spatial tasks often involve the right hemisphere.
半球偏侧化是指某些功能在某一半球比另一半球更具优势的倾向。语言通常偏左侧化（布洛卡区、韦尼克区），而空间任务常涉及右半球。
Remember 'Left for Language, Right for Spatial sight'. In most people the left side is logic- and language-heavy, the right side is 'right for drawing a site map'.
记忆口诀：“左语言，右空间”。多数人的左脑重逻辑和语言，右脑则“适合画场地的地图”。
7. Cognitive Psychology: Memory Models | 认知心理学：记忆模型
The Multi-Store Model (MSM) by Atkinson and Shiffrin describes three separate stores: sensory register (very brief, modality-specific), short-term memory (STM) (limited capacity, 7±2 items, duration ~18-30 seconds), and long-term memory (LTM) (potentially unlimited capacity and duration). Information moves between them via attention and rehearsal.
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin 提出的多存储模型 (MSM) 描述了三个彼此分离的存储系统：感觉登记（极短暂、模态特异）、短时记忆 (STM)（容量有限，7±2 个组块，持续约 18-30 秒）和长时记忆 (LTM)（容量和持续时间潜在地无限）。信息通过注意和复述在各系统间流转。
Image these as three boxes: Sensory is a fleeting snapshot; STM is a mental sticky note that quickly falls off; LTM is a vast library. Rehearsal is the librarian carrying books from the sticky note to the shelf.
把这想象成三个盒子：感觉登记是转瞬即逝的快照；短时记忆是一张很快就会脱落的心理便签；长时记忆则是一座巨大的图书馆。复述就是图书管理员把书籍从便签搬到书架上的动作。
The Working Memory Model (WMM) by Baddeley and Hitch sees STM as an active processor. It comprises the central executive (the supervisor), phonological loop (verbal/acoustic information), visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual and spatial data), and episodic buffer (integrates information and links to LTM).
Baddeley 和 Hitch 提出的工作记忆模型 (WMM) 把短时记忆视为一个主动处理器。它包括中央执行器（监管者）、语音回路（言语/声学信息）、视空间画板（视觉和空间数据）和情景缓冲器（整合信息并与长时记忆相连）。
Picture the central executive as a busy boss in an office, the phonological loop as a voice recorder, the visuo-spatial sketchpad as a whiteboard, and the episodic buffer as a temporary file folder connecting everything.
把中央执行器想象成办公室里忙碌的老板，语音回路是一台录音机，视空间画板是一块白板，情景缓冲器则是一个临时文件夹，把一切联系起来。
8. Cognitive Processing: Schemas and Biases | 认知加工：图式与偏差
A schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that helps us organise and interpret information. Schematic processing can lead to distortions when we fill gaps with schema-consistent (but inaccurate) details – as studied by Bartlett in 'War of the Ghosts'.
图式是一种由信念和预期构成的思维框架，帮助我们组织和解读信息。图式加工可能导致扭曲，当我们用符合图式（但不准确）的细节填补空白时就会发生——如 Bartlett 在《幽灵之战》中所研究的那样。
Think of a schema as a mental filing cabinet. When a new document arrives, instead of reading it fully, you just match it to a pre-existing folder and assume the missing pieces from that folder's template.
把图式想象成一个心理文件柜。当一份新文件进来时，你并没有完整阅读，而是直接把它匹配到已有的文件夹，并根据该文件夹的模板补全缺失的部分。
Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) is the uncomfortable mental state when we hold two conflicting beliefs, or when our behaviour clashes with our attitudes. To reduce it, we often change our attitude to match our behaviour.
认知失调（Festinger）是指当我们持有两种冲突信念，或者行为与态度不一致时产生的不适心理状态。为了减轻不适，我们常常改变态度以与行为保持一致。
Dissonance feels like mental 'static noise'. Imagine smoking despite knowing it kills – to stop the noise, one might add a consonant belief: 'I only smoke a little, and I eat healthily otherwise'.
失调就像大脑里的“静电噪音”。想象明知吸烟致命却仍在吸烟——为了消除噪音，人们可能会添加一个协调信念：“我抽得很少，而且我饮食很健康”。
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, favour, and recall information that supports our pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
确认偏误是指倾向于搜寻、偏好和回忆那些支持我们既有信念的信息，同时忽视相反证据。
It is like a detective who only interviews witnesses who confirm his suspect and ignores those pointing elsewhere. 'Confirm' is right there in the name – we 'confirm' what we already think.
就像一位侦探只询问那些指证他所怀疑嫌犯的证人，而无视指向他人的线索。名称里的“确认”一词已经说明了一切——我们不断“确认”我们本就相信的东西。
9. Social Psychology: Influence and Obedience | 社会心理学：影响与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Compliance is going along publicly but not privately; identification is conforming because you value group membership; internalisation is a deep conversion where both public and private views change.
从众是由于真实或想象到的群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。顺从是公开附和但私下并不认同；认同是因珍视群体成员身份而遵从；内化则是一种深层转变，公开和私下的观点都发生改变。
Use the acronym 'CII' and link to 'see-eye-eye': Compliance (C) is superficial, Identification (I) is group-based, Internalisation (I) is genuine. Picture three levels of wearing a uniform: just putting it on (compliance), wearing it proudly in the team (identification), believing the uniform's values (internalisation).
使用首字母缩略词“CII”，并联想“see-eye-eye”：顺从 (C) 表浅、认同 (I) 基于群体、内化 (I) 真实无疑。想象穿制服的三个层次：只是穿上（顺从），在团队中自豪地穿着（认同），笃信制服所代表的价值观（内化）。
Obedience is following direct commands, usually from an authority figure. Milgram's famous study showed ordinary people could administer potentially deadly shocks when instructed by a legitimate authority in a prestigious setting.
服从是遵循直接命令，通常来自权威人物。Milgram 的著名研究显示，普通人在一个有声望的环境中、在合法权威的指令下，可以施加可能致命的电击。
Obedience = 'obey + audience' implying an authority watching over you. Visualise a teacher in a lab coat issuing orders – the uniform and institutional context amplify obedience.
服从 = “obey (服从) + audience (观众)”，暗示有权威在注视。想象一位穿实验大褂的老师发号施令——制服和机构背景会放大服从。
10. Social Identity and Group Behaviour | 社会认同与群体行为
Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner) proposes that we derive part of our self-esteem from the groups we belong to (in-groups). We boost our identity by favouring the in-group and sometimes derogating out-groups. The process involves social categorisation, social identification, and social comparison.
社会认同理论 (SIT) (Tajfel 和 Turner) 提出，我们的部分自尊来自我们所属的群体（内群）。我们通过偏爱内群、有时贬损外群来提升自我认同。这一过程包括社会分类、社会认同和社会比较。
Think of sports fans: they arbitrarily categorise as 'us vs them', identify strongly with the team, then compare 'we're the best' – all without ever kicking a ball. The three Cs: Categorise, Connect (identify), Compare.
想想体育迷：他们任意地归类为“我们 vs 他们”，强烈认同自己的球队，然后比较出“我们最棒”——而他们根本就没碰过球。三个 C：分类 (Categorise)、连接 (Connect, 即认同)、比较 (Compare)。
The bystander effect (or bystander apathy) is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when other people are present. Diffusion of responsibility explains it: each person assumes someone else will intervene.
旁观者效应（或旁观者冷漠）是指当其他人在场时，个体在紧急情况下提供帮助的可能性降低的现象。责任扩散可以解释：每个人都认为别人会出面干涉。
Picture a crowded tube station where someone collapses – every commuter glances and thinks 'someone else will call the ambulance'. The more bystanders, the more diluted the sense of personal duty.
想象拥挤的地铁站里有人倒下——每个乘客看上一眼后都想“别人会叫救护车的”。旁观者越多，个人责任感就越被稀释。
11. Developmental Psychology: Attachment and Cognitive Development | 发展心理学：依恋与认知发展
Attachment is a strong, enduring emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver. Bowlby argued it is adaptive for survival. Secure attachment (Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation') is marked by distress at separation but joy upon reunion, using the caregiver as a safe base.
依恋是婴儿与主要照顾者之间强烈而持久的情感纽带。Bowlby 认为这是为生存而演化出的适应性行为。安全型依恋（Ainsworth 的“陌生情境”）表现为分离时痛苦，但重聚时喜悦，将照顾者当作安全基地。
Think of a secure attachment as an 'emotional safety net'. The infant is like a little explorer who occasionally checks back to base. Insecure-avoidant ignores the net; insecure-resistant clings and cannot explore; disorganised shows confusion.
把安全型依恋想象成一张“情感安全网”。婴儿就像一个小小探索者，偶尔会返回基地确认。回避型会无视这张网；反抗型紧紧抓住而无法探索；混乱型则表现出困惑。
Piaget's object permanence is the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (develops around 8-12 months). Egocentrism in the preoperational stage is the inability to see the world from another's viewpoint, famously illustrated by the three mountains task.
Piaget 的客体永久性是指认识到即使看不到物体，它仍然继续存在（约 8-12 个月发展出来）。前运算阶段的自我中心是无法从他人的视角看世界，经典如三山任务所示。
Object permanence: slide a toy under a blanket – younger infants stop looking, but those who have achieved it will reach under. For egocentrism, a child describing a picture to you assumes you see exactly what they see, like they are trapped inside their own camera view.
客体永久性：把玩具滑到毯子下面——小婴儿就不再去寻找，而已经达成该能力的婴儿会伸手到毯子下。对于自我中心，一个孩子在给你描述一幅画时会假定你看到的完全和他一样，仿佛困在了自己的照相机取景器里。
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO). Scaffolding is the tailored support provided within that zone.
Vygotsky 的最近发展区 (ZPD)是学习者在独立完成和在他知他人的指导下能够达到的水平之间的差距。支架则是在该区域内提供的针对性支持。
Picture a child trying to assemble a model: alone, they only get so far. A parent provides just enough hints (scaffolding) to help them reach the next level – not doing it for them, but bridging the gap step by step.
想象一个孩子在拼模型：独自拼只能完成一部分。父母在一旁给出刚好够用的提示（支架），帮他们达到下一水平——不是替他们做，而是一步一步地填补差距。
12. Psychopathology: Key Terms | 精神病理学：关键术语
The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is the standard classification system used by clinicians. It uses operationalised criteria to diagnose conditions such as major depressive disorder, phobias, and schizophrenia.
DSM-5（《精神障碍诊断与统计手册》第五版）是临床医生使用的标准分类系统。它使用操作化标准来诊断诸如重度抑郁障碍、恐惧症和精神分裂症等疾病。
Think of the DSM as a 'menu' of symptoms: to be diagnosed, a person must 'order' a minimum number from a specific list for a required duration. This menu metaphor reinforces its checklist nature.
把 DSM 想作一份症状“菜单”：要被确诊，就必须在特定时间里从一份清单中“点”够最低数量的症状。这个菜单比喻强化了它的核对清单属性。
Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural therapy for phobias that gradually exposes the client to the feared stimulus while teaching relaxation techniques, building an anxiety hierarchy. Flooding exposes the client to the most fearful situation immediately, without gradual build-up.
系统脱敏是一种针对恐惧症的行为疗法，在教导放松技巧的同时，逐步将当事人暴露于恐惧刺激中，并建立焦虑等级。满灌法则是让当事人立即直面最恐惧的情境，而不经过逐步建立过程。
Systematic desensitisation is like slowly wading into a cold ocean step by step; flooding is jumping straight into the deep end. Both aim to extinguish the fear association.
系统脱敏就像一步一步慢慢趟进冰冷的大海；满灌法则是直接跳入深水区。两者都旨在消除恐惧联结。
Cognitive behavioural therapy
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