📚 A-Level Cambridge Philosophy: Quick Memorization Guide to Key Terminology | A-Level Cambridge 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering A-Level Cambridge Philosophy requires a confident command of precise technical terms, but memorising them can feel like learning a new language. This guide breaks down the most important vocabulary across epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, philosophy of mind, logic, and political thought, pairing every definition with a clear Chinese equivalent and a memorable anchor. Used alongside your course notes, these paired explanations will help you recall, apply, and evaluate terms under exam pressure.
攻克 A-Level 剑桥哲学需要精准掌握大量技术性术语，但死记硬背常常令人望而生畏。本指南将认识论、形而上学、伦理学、心灵哲学、逻辑学和政治哲学中最核心的词汇一一拆解，每条定义都配有清晰的中文对应和好记的锚点。配合课程笔记使用这些中英双语释义，能帮助你在考试时间紧张时快速调取、运用和评价相关概念。
1. Epistemology: Core Concepts | 认识论核心概念
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. It asks questions such as 'What does it mean to know something?' and 'How do we justify our beliefs?'
认识论是探讨知识本质、来源与限度的哲学分支。它追问“知道某事意味着什么？”以及“我们如何为信念提供辩护？”
Belief is a propositional attitude: to believe that P is to hold P to be true. In epistemology, belief is the psychological state required for knowledge, but mere belief is not enough.
信念是一种命题态度：相信命题P就是把P当作真。在认识论中，信念是构成知识所需的心理状态，但仅有信念还不够。
Justification provides the rational grounding that turns a true belief into knowledge. Internalists argue that justifying factors must be accessible to the subject's consciousness, while externalists (e.g., reliabilists) claim that a belief is justified if it is produced by a reliable cognitive process.
证成（辩护）为真信念提供理性根基，使之成为知识。内在论者认为证成因素必须能被主体意识到；外在论者（如可靠论者）则主张，只要信念由可靠的认知过程产生，它就是得到辩护的。
Truth is standardly understood through the correspondence theory: a belief is true if it matches the facts. Coherence and pragmatic theories offer alternatives, but for the classic analysis of knowledge, truth is a necessary condition.
真理通常通过符合论来理解：一个信念如果与事实相符，它就是真的。融贯论和实用论也提供替代解释，但在经典的知识分析中，真是必要条件。
Memory tip: Link JTB — Justified, True, Belief. Imagine a courtroom: you need a true claim (fact), a belief (the juror's conviction), and justification (evidence).
记忆提示：把 JTB 联系起来——证成的、真的、信念。想象法庭场景：你需要真实的主张（事实）、信念（陪审员的内心确信）和证成（证据）。
2. The Gettier Problem: Beyond JTB | 盖梯尔问题：超越 JTB
The classical tripartite definition holds that knowledge is justified true belief. In 1963, Edmund Gettier published short counterexamples where a person has a justified true belief that nevertheless seems to fall short of knowledge due to luck or accident.
经典三元定义认为知识就是被证成的真信念。1963 年，埃德蒙·盖梯尔发表了简短的反例，其中一个人拥有被证成的真信念，但由于运气或偶然因素，这并不构成真正的知识。
In a typical Gettier case, Smith has strong evidence that Jones will get a job (justified) and also believes the proposition 'The man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket'. It turns out Smith himself gets the job and, unbeknown to him, has ten coins in his pocket. His belief is justified and true, yet we hesitate to call it knowledge.
在一个典型的盖梯尔案例中，史密斯有充分证据相信琼斯会得到工作（证成），并相信“那个将得到工作的人口袋里有十枚硬币”。结果得到工作的是史密斯本人，而他恰恰不知道口袋里也有十枚硬币。他的信念既被证成又真，但我们依然不愿称之为知识。
Gettier problem prompted responses such as adding a 'no false lemmas' condition or requiring that the belief be safely true (safety condition). A2 candidates should be able to explain why Gettier cases challenge the sufficiency of JTB.
盖梯尔问题催生了各种回应，比如增加“没有假前提”条件，或要求信念是安全地真的（安全性条件）。A2 考生应能解释为何盖梯尔案例挑战了 JTB 的充分性。
Mnemonics: 'Gettier = Genuine Justified True Belief obstructed by Gettier-style luck.' Also remember 'No False Lemmas' as NFL — no fake links.
速记：“盖梯尔 = 被运气阻断的真正 JTB”。也可记住“无假前提”条件（No False Lemmas）的首字母 NFL。
3. Rationalism vs. Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that some concepts or truths are innate. Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz are key rationalists. Descartes' famous 'I think, therefore I am' (Cogito) attempts to build knowledge on clear and distinct ideas accessible through pure reason.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源，某些概念或真理是天赋的。笛卡尔、斯宾诺莎和莱布尼茨是主要理性主义者。笛卡尔著名的“我思故我在”（Cogito）试图通过纯粹理性获得的清晰分明观念来建立知识。
Empiricism maintains that the only source of genuine knowledge is sensory experience. Locke described the mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth; Hume pushed empiricism to its skeptical limits, arguing that we cannot rationally justify inductive reasoning or necessary causal connections.
经验主义坚持认为真正的知识只能来源于感觉经验。洛克把心灵描述为出生时的“白板”（tabula rasa）；休谟将经验主义推向怀疑论极致，认为我们无法理性地证成归纳推理或必然的因果联系。
A priori and a posteriori are crucial distinctions: a priori knowledge is justified independently of experience (e.g., mathematics for rationalists); a posteriori knowledge depends on experience (e.g., 'Water boils at 100°C'). Rationalists argue that substantive a priori knowledge is possible; empiricists limit a priori truths to analytic statements.
先天与后天是关键区分：先天知识的辩护独立于经验（如理性主义眼中的数学）；后天知识依赖于经验（如“水在100°C沸腾”）。理性主义论证实质性的先天知识是可能的；经验主义则将先天真理限制为分析命题。
ok: Rationalism = Reason (both start with R). Empiricism = Experience (both start with E).
记忆挂钩：理性主义 Rationalism 与理性 Reason 都以 R 开头。经验主义 Empiricism 与经验 Experience 都以 E 开头。
4. Metaphysics: Substance, Dualism & Materialism | 形而上学：实体、二元论与唯物主义
Metaphysics examines the fundamental nature of reality, including concepts such as existence, substance, mind and body, time, and identity. Ontology, a sub-branch, catalogues what kinds of things exist.
形而上学研究实在的根本本性，包括存在、实体、身心、时间和同一性等概念。本体论作为其分支，追问哪些种类的事物存在。
Substance dualism, defended by Descartes, holds that there are two fundamentally distinct kinds of substance: mental substance (res cogitans) and physical substance (res extensa). Mental substance is non-spatial and private; physical substance is extended in space. The interaction problem asks how an immaterial mind can cause changes in the physical body.
实体二元论（笛卡尔捍卫）认为存在两种根本不同的实体：精神实体（思维之物）和物理实体（广延之物）。精神实体不占空间且具有私人性，物理实体在空间中延伸。互动难题追问：非物质的心灵如何引起物理身体的变化？
Materialism (or physicalism) asserts that everything that exists is physical or supervenes on the physical. Identity theory claims mental states are identical to brain states; functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles. These positions respond to dualism by denying the need for a separate mental substance.
唯物主义（或物理主义）断言一切存在的东西都是物理的，或随附于物理事物之上。同一论主张心理状态等同于大脑状态；功能主义则用因果角色定义心理状态。这些立场通过否认存在单独的精神实体来回应二元论。
Quick recall: Dualism = two worlds. Materialism = one stuff. Remember Descartes' 'Ghost in the machine' — Gilbert Ryle's phrase to mock dualism.
快速回想：二元论 = 两个世界；唯物主义 = 一种质料。记住笛卡尔的“机器中的幽灵”——吉尔伯特·赖尔嘲讽二元论的用语。
5. Free Will: Libertarianism, Determinism, Compatibilism | 自由意志：自由意志论、决定论、相容论
Determinism is the thesis that every event, including human actions, is causally necessitated by prior states. Hard determinism combines determinism with the claim that free will is therefore an illusion and moral responsibility is undermined.
决定论主张每一个事件，包括人类行为，都由先前状态因果地必然决定。硬决定论既接受决定论，又主张自由意志因此是幻象，道德责任被瓦解。
Libertarianism (in the free will debate) insists that we do have genuine free will that is incompatible with determinism, and that determinism is false. Agent-causal theories claim agents themselves cause actions without being fully determined by prior causes.
自由意志论（在自由意志争论中）坚称我们确实拥有与决定论不相容的真正自由意志，且决定论是假的。能动者因果理论主张能动者自身引发行为，而不完全由先前原因决定。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) maintains that free will is compatible with determinism. A compatibilist redefines free will as the ability to act according to one's desires without coercion, even if those desires are themselves determined. Hume and Ayer are classic compatibilists.
相容论（软决定论）主张自由意志与决定论相容。相容论者将自由意志重定义为在不受强制的情况下按自己的欲望行动的能力，即便这些欲望本身也是被决定的。休谟和艾耶尔是经典相容论者。
Principle of Alternate Possibilities (PAP): a person is morally responsible only if they could have done otherwise. Frankfurt-style cases challenge PAP by imagining a scenario where an agent cannot do otherwise yet seems clearly responsible.
替代可能性原则 (PAP)：一个人只有本可以不这样做时才负有道德责任。法兰克福式案例挑战 PAP，构想出能动者无法做其他选择却显然需要负责的情景。
Mnemonic: 'Libertarian = Liberty, no chain. Compatibilist = Compatible with the chain.'
记忆口诀：“自由意志论 = 自由，无锁链。相容论 = 与锁链相容”。
6. Philosophy of Mind: Qualia and Intentionality | 心灵哲学：感受质与意向性
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience — what it is like to see red, taste coffee, or feel pain. The knowledge argument (Mary the colour scientist) and the conceivability of philosophical zombies are used to argue that qualia resist physical explanation.
感受质（Qualia）是意识经验的主观、质性方面——看见红色、品尝咖啡或感受疼痛所体验到的那种“感觉如何”。知识论证（色彩科学家玛丽）和哲学僵尸的可设想性被用来论证感受质无法被物理主义解释穷尽。
Intentionality is the 'aboutness' of mental states: beliefs, desires, and hopes are directed towards objects or states of affairs. A belief that Paris is the capital of France is about Paris. Intentionality is often taken as a mark of the mental.
意向性是心理状态的“关涉性”：信念、欲望和希望总是指向对象或事态。相信巴黎是法国首都这一信念就关涉巴黎。意向性常被视作心理的标志。
The hard problem of consciousness (David Chalmers) asks why and how physical processing gives rise to subjective experience at all. Functionalism tries to explain mental states in terms of inputs, outputs, and relations to other mental states, but critics argue it leaves out qualia.
意识的困难问题（大卫·查尔莫斯）追问：物理过程究竟为何以及如何产生主观体验？功能主义试图用输入、输出及其与其他心理状态的关系来解释心理状态，但批评者认为它遗漏了感受质。
Quick anchor: Qualia = 'quality' of feeling. Intentionality = 'intend' toward something. Think of an arrow (intention) pointing at a target.
快速锚点：Qualia（感受质）就是感受的“质”。Intentionality（意向性）就是“指向”某物。想象一支箭（意向）射向靶子。
7. Ethics: Utilitarianism & Deontology | 伦理学：功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory holding that the right action is the one that maximises overall utility, typically understood as pleasure or happiness. Bentham's act utilitarianism applies the principle directly to individual acts; Mill's rule utilitarianism considers general rules that tend to promote utility, and distinguishes higher and lower pleasures.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，主张正当的行为就是能最大化总体功利（通常理解为快乐或幸福）的行为。边沁的行为功利主义将原则直接用于个别行为；密尔的规则功利主义则考虑那些倾向于增进功利的一般规则，并区分了高级快乐与低级快乐。
The hedonic calculus (Bentham) weighs an action's pleasure and pain across dimensions: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. Critics argue this reduces morality to a crude cost-benefit analysis and can justify injustice to minorities.
快乐计算法（边沁）从强度、时长、确定性、远近、繁殖性、纯度和范围等维度衡量行为的苦乐。批评者认为这把道德降格为粗暴的成本收益分析，并可能为不公正对待少数群体辩护。
Deontology, associated with Kant, asserts that the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. The Categorical Imperative tests whether a maxim can be universalised and whether we treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means. Acting from duty, not inclination, gives an action moral worth.
义务论（与康德相关）主张行为的正当性并非仅由后果决定。定言命令检验一个准则是否能够普遍化，以及我们是否始终把人当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。出于义务而非偏好而行动，才赋予行为道德价值。
Memory shortcut: Utilitarianism = 'use' the calculator for happiness. Deontology = 'Duty' (both start with D). Kant's formula: 'Act only on that maxim…' — remember the universalisation test.
记忆捷径：功利主义 Utilitarianism — “用”（use）计算器衡量幸福。义务论 Deontology — “Duty”（责任）都以 D 开头。康德的公式：“只依照你能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动” — 记住普遍化检验。
8. Virtue Ethics & Meta-Ethics | 美德伦理学与元伦理学
Virtue ethics shifts the focus from rules or consequences to the character of the moral agent. Aristotle argues that the good life (eudaimonia) consists in exercising virtues — character traits such as courage, temperance, and justice — in accordance with practical wisdom (phronesis). Each virtue lies at a mean between excess and deficiency.
美德伦理学将焦点从规则或后果转向道德能动者的品格。亚里士多德主张，良好生活（eudaimonia）在于依据实践智慧（phronesis）践行诸如勇敢、节制和正义等美德。每一项美德都位于过度与不足的中道之上。
In meta-ethics, moral realism claims that moral properties exist objectively and that moral judgments can be true or false independently of our attitudes. Moral anti-realism (including error theory and emotivism) denies this. Emotivism (Ayer, Stevenson) holds that moral statements merely express emotions — 'Stealing is wrong' means something like 'Boo to stealing!'
在元伦理学中，道德实在论主张道德属性客观存在，道德判断可以独立于我们的态度而为真或假。道德反实在论（包括错误论和情感主义）则否认这一点。情感主义（艾耶尔、史蒂文森）认为道德陈述不过是表达情绪——“偷窃是错的” 大致相当于 “偷窃，呸！”
Naturalistic fallacy (G.E. Moore): identifying 'good' with any natural property (e.g., pleasure) commits a fallacy. Moore argues that goodness is a simple, non-natural, indefinable quality — the open question argument shows that we can always intelligibly ask of any natural property 'But is it good?'
自然主义谬误（摩尔）：将“善”等同于任何自然属性（如快乐）就犯了谬误。摩尔论证善是一种单纯、非自然、不可定义的特性——开放问题论证表明，对于任何自然属性，我们总能有意义地问：“但它本身是善的吗？”
Memory: 'Virtue ethics = Very Excellent character.' Meta-ethics: 'Meta' = above — it steps back and asks what moral language means.
记忆：“美德伦理学 = Very Excellent 品格”。元伦理学：“元” (meta) 意为在上方 — 它后退一步，追问道德语言本身意味着什么。
9. Logic: Validity, Soundness & Logical Form | 逻辑：有效性、可靠性与逻辑形式
In deductive logic, an argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. Validity depends on logical form, not content. Example: 'All A are B; x is A; therefore x is B' is valid. Truth of premises is not required for validity.
在演绎逻辑中，一个论证有效，当且仅当其前提真而结论假是不可能的。有效性取决于逻辑形式而非内容。例如：“所有 A 都是 B；x 是 A；所以 x 是 B”是有效的。有效性不要求前提为真。
Soundness gument guarantees a true conclusion. In A-Level exam answers, always distinguish validity (the connection) from truth (the actual fact).
可靠性 = 有效性 + 真实前提。一个可靠的论证保证结论为真。在 A-Level 考试答题中，要始终区分有效性（关联）和真（事实）。
Informal fallacies are common reasoning errors. Ad hominem attacks the person instead of the argument. Begging the question (petitio principii) assumes the conclusion in the premises. False dilemma presents only two options when more exist. Recognising fallacies helps evaluate philosophical texts.
非形式谬误是常见的推理错误。人身攻击（ad hominem）攻击说话者而非论点。乞题（循环论证）在前提出假定结论。假两难只给出两个选项而实际上存在更多选项。识别谬误有助于评价哲学文本。
emises. Imagine a valid ladder that could be made of imaginary material; sound means the ladder has real rungs.
关键区分：有效 = 如果前提为真则结论必真（逻辑形状）。可靠 = 有效 + 真实前提。想象一个由虚构成分制成的有效梯子；可靠意味着梯子的横档是真实的。
10. Political Philosophy: Social Contract & Justice | 政治哲学：社会契约与正义
Social contract theory argues that legitimate political authority arises from an agreement among individuals to form a society. Hobbes envisioned a state of nature as a war of all against all; to escape, individuals surrender rights to a sovereign (Leviathan) in exchange for security.
社会契约论主张，正当的政治权威来自个体之间为成立社会而达成的协议。霍布斯将自然状态设想为一切人对一切人的战争；为了摆脱这种状态，个体将权利让渡给主权者（利维坦）以换取安全。
Locke's social contract is less pessimistic: the state of nature has natural rights but lacks impartial judges. Individuals consent to government to protect life, liberty, and property — and retain the right to revolt if government becomes tyrannical. Rousseau advocates a collective 'general will' that aims at the common good.
洛克的社会契约不那么悲观：自然状态拥有自然权利，但缺乏公正裁判。个人同意建立政府以保护生命、自由和财产，并保有反抗暴政的权利。卢梭倡导一种致力于共同善的集体“公意”。
John Rawls' theory of justice as fairness employs the original position and the veil of ignorance. Rational agents behind the veil, ignorant of their social position and talents, would choose two principles: equal basic liberties, and social and economic inequalities arranged to benefit the least advantaged (the difference principle).
罗尔斯的作为公平的正义理论运用原初状态和无知之幕。站在无知之幕后面的理性行动者不知道自己的社会地位和天赋，他们会选择两条原则：平等的根本自由，以及社会经济不平等要最有利于最不利者（差异原则）。
l of ignorance, fairness. Think of cutting a cake behind a veil: you cut fairly because you don't know which slice you'll get.
回想：霍布斯 = 严酷，利维坦。洛克 = 自由 Liberty、财产。罗尔斯 = 无知之幕，公平。想象在幕后切蛋糕：你不知道会拿到哪一块，所以你会切得公平。
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