📚 A-Level Cambridge Law: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Reference Guide | A-Level Cambridge 法律：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering legal terminology is essential for success in A-Level Cambridge Law. This guide presents key Latin and English terms alongside clear definitions, helping you build a solid foundation for essays and problem questions.
掌握法律术语是 A-Level Cambridge 法律成功的关键。本指南提供关键的拉丁语和英语术语及其清晰定义，帮助你为论文和案例分析题打下坚实基础。
1. Core Criminal Law Terms | 核心刑法术语
Actus reus refers to the guilty act or the physical element of a crime. It includes conduct, consequences, and circumstances that together constitute the external component of an offence.
Actus reus 指犯罪行为或犯罪的物理要素，包括行为、结果和情境，共同构成罪行的外部要件。
Mens rea is the guilty mind, covering intention, recklessness, negligence, and knowledge. Without the required mens rea, a defendant generally cannot be convicted of a serious offence.
Mens rea 是犯罪意图，涵盖故意、鲁莽、疏忽和明知。若缺少所需的犯意，被告通常不能被判处严重罪行。
Causation links the defendant’s act to the prohibited result. Factual causation uses the 'but for' test, while legal causation requires the act to be a substantial and operating cause.
因果关系将被告的行为与禁止的结果联系起来。事实因果关系采用“若无则不”测试，法律因果关系则要求行为是实质且持续起作用的原因。
2. Key Concepts in Negligence | 过失侵权关键概念
Duty of care is established through the neighbour principle from Donoghue v Stevenson, later refined in Caparo v Dickman. A defendant must take reasonable care to avoid acts that could foreseeably harm a claimant.
注意义务通过 Donoghue v Stevenson 案中的邻人原则确立，后在 Caparo v Dickman 案中被细化。被告必须采取合理谨慎以避免可预见地伤害原告的行为。
Breach of duty occurs when a defendant falls below the standard of the reasonable person. Factors such as likelihood of harm, seriousness of injury, and cost of precautions are considered by the court.
违反注意义务指被告行为低于合理人的标准。法院会考虑损害发生的可能性、伤害的严重性以及预防措施的成本等因素。
Causation in negligence requires both factual and legal causation. The remoteness of damage limits liability to losses that are reasonably foreseeable, per The Wagon Mound.
过失中的因果关系要求同时满足事实和法律因果关系。损害的遥远性根据 The Wagon Mound 案将责任限制在合理可预见的损失范围内。
3. Judicial Precedent & Reporting | 司法先例与判例汇编
Stare decisis means 'to stand by things decided'. It obliges lower courts to follow the legal principles established in higher court decisions when the material facts are similar.
Stare decisis 意为“遵循已决之事”，要求下级法院在关键事实相似时遵循上级法院判决中确立的法律原则。
Ratio decidendi is the binding element of a judgment – the legal reasoning essential to the decision. Later courts must apply this principle in cases with analogous facts.
Ratio decidendi 是判决中具约束力的部分——即作出裁决所必需的法律推理。后续法院在类似事实的案件中必须适用该原则。
Obiter dicta are remarks made by the way, not essential to the decision. While not binding, they can be highly persuasive, as seen in Hedley Byrne v Heller regarding negligent misstatement.
Obiter dicta 是判决中的附带意见，对决定非属必要。虽无约束力，但可能极具说服力，例如 Hedley Byrne v Heller 案中关于过失性错误陈述的意见。
4. Sources of Law & Legislation | 法律渊源与立法
Primary legislation refers to Acts of Parliament, which are the supreme form of UK law. Delegated or secondary legislation is made by government ministers under powers granted by an enabling Act.
初级立法指议会通过的法律，是英国最高法律形式。授权立法或次级立法由政府部长根据授权法案赋予的权力制定。
Statutory interpretation involves judges applying rules such as the literal rule, the golden rule, and the mischief rule to ascertain Parliament’s intention in ambiguous statutes.
法定解释涉及法官运用字面规则、黄金规则和弊端规则等方法，以确定议会在模糊法条中的意图。
The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law. Courts must read legislation compatibly with Convention rights wherever possible, under section 3.
1998年《人权法案》将欧洲人权公约纳入国内法。根据第3条，法院必须尽可能以符合公约权利的方式解释立法。
5. Offences Against the Person | 侵犯人身罪
Assault is an act causing the victim to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. Battery is the actual unlawful application of force upon another person. Both are summary offences under the Criminal Justice Act 1988.
Assault（恐吓性攻击）是使受害者立即感受到非法人身暴力的行为。Battery（暴力攻击）是对他人实际实施非法武力。两者均属1988年《刑事司法法》下的简易程序罪行。
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) under s.47 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 requires proof of assault or battery that causes hurt or injury calculated to interfere with the health or comfort of the victim.
1861年《侵犯人身罪法》第47条的袭击致实际身体伤害（ABH）要求证明恐吓性攻击或暴力攻击造成了旨在影响受害者健康或舒适的伤害。
Grievous bodily harm (GBH) and wounding under s.20 and s.18 are more serious. Section 20 requires malicious infliction of grievous bodily harm or a wound, while s.18 demands specific intent to cause such harm.
第20条和第18条下的严重身体伤害（GBH）与创伤更为严重。第20条要求恶意造成严重身体伤害或创伤，而第18条要求有造成此类伤害的特定意图。
6. Property Offences | 财产犯罪
Theft is defined in s.1 Theft Act 1968 as the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention to permanently deprive. All five elements must be proved simultaneously.
盗窃罪由1968年《盗窃法》第1条定义为以永久剥夺为目的，不诚实地侵占属于他人的财产。必须同时证明全部五个要件。
Robbery under s.8 Theft Act 1968 is theft aggravated by the use or threat of force immediately before or at the time of stealing. The force must be used in order to steal, and the theft must be completed.
1968年《盗窃法》第8条下的抢劫罪是在盗窃过程中或紧接盗窃前使用或威胁使用武力的盗窃行为。武力必须是为了盗窃而使用，且盗窃行为必须完成。
Burglary under s.9 can occur either by entering as a trespasser with intent to commit an ulterior offence, or by entering and then committing theft or GBH. The entry must be effective and without permission.
第9条规定的入室盗窃罪要么是作为侵入者进入并意图实施特定后续犯罪，要么是进入后实际实施盗窃或GBH。进入必须有效且未经许可。
7. Defences in Criminal Law | 刑法抗辩理由
Self-defence allows reasonable force to protect oneself, another, or property. Under s.76 Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008, the degree of force must be proportionate in the circumstances as the defendant honestly believed them to be.
自我防卫允许使用合理武力保护自己、他人或财产。根据2008年《刑事司法与移民法》第76条，武力程度必须与被告真诚相信的情况相称。
Duress is a defence to all crimes except murder and treason. It requires a threat of death or serious injury, and the defendant must reasonably believe the threat is imminent and have no reasonable opportunity to escape.
胁迫是对除谋杀和叛国之外所有罪行的抗辩。它要求存在死亡或严重伤害的威胁，且被告合理地相信威胁迫在眉睫，并无合理逃脱机会。
Intoxication may negate mens rea for specific intent crimes if it is involuntary. Voluntary intoxication is only a defence to crimes of specific intent where the defendant could not form the intent, but it is not a defence to basic intent crimes.
醉酒若为非自愿，可否定特定意图犯罪的犯意。自愿醉酒仅在被告人无法形成该意图时，对特定意图犯罪构成抗辩，但对基本意图犯罪不构成抗辩。
8. Law of Contract | 合同法
An offer is an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding upon acceptance. It must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, as illustrated in Fisher v Bell.
要约是愿意按特定条款订立合同的意思表示，并有意在一经承诺即受约束。它必须与要约邀请相区别，如 Fisher v Bell 案所示。
Consideration is the price for which the promise of the other is bought. It must be sufficient but need not be adequate, must not be past, and must move from the promisee, following Currie v Misa.
对价是为换取对方承诺而付出的代价。它必须充分但无需相当，不得是过去的对价，并且必须由受诺人提供，遵循 Currie v Misa 案。
Frustration discharges a contract when an unforeseen event renders performance impossible, illegal, or radically different. Examples include destruction of the subject matter or supervening illegality.
合同落空在不可预见事件致使履行不可能、非法或根本性不同时解除合同。例如标的物毁损或随后发生的非法情形。
9. Tort Law Terms | 侵权法术语
Trespass to land is the direct and unjustifiable interference with another’s possession of land. It is actionable per se, meaning the claimant need not prove damage.
非法侵入土地是对他人土地占有的直接且无正当理由的干涉。该行为本身即可起诉，即索赔人无需证明损害。
Private nuisance indirectly interferes with a claimant’s use and enjoyment of land through unreasonable conduct. Factors like duration, locality, and sensitivity of the claimant are balanced.
私人妨害通过不合理行为间接干扰索赔人对土地的使用和享受。法院会平衡持续时间、地点以及索赔人的敏感性等因素。
Rylands v Fletcher imposes strict liability where a person brings onto their land something likely to do mischief if it escapes, and it does escape, causing damage. It requires a non-natural use of land.
Rylands v Fletcher 规则规定，若某人在其土地引入一旦逸出可能造成危害之物，且该物确实逸出并造成损害，则承担严格责任。这要求土地存在非自然使用。
10. Criminal Procedure & Sentencing | 刑事诉讼与量刑
The burden of proof in criminal cases lies with the prosecution, as per Woolmington v DPP. The standard is beyond reasonable doubt, meaning the jury must be satisfied so that they are sure of the defendant’s guilt.
刑事案件中的举证责任在于控方，遵循 Woolmington v DPP 案。证明标准是排除合理怀疑，即陪审团必须确信被告有罪。
Summary offences are tried in the Magistrates’ Court, while indictable offences are tried in the Crown Court. Either way offences can be tried in either court depending on the defendant’s choice and the magistrates’ decision.
简易程序罪行在地方法院审理，可公诉罪行在刑事法院审理。两可罪行可根据被告选择和地方法官的决定在任一法院审理。
Sentencing aims include punishment, deterrence, rehabilitation, and protection of the public. Custodial sentences are reserved for the most serious offences, while community orders and fines are used for less serious matters.
量刑目的包括惩罚、威慑、改造和保护公众。监禁刑保留给最严重的罪行，社区令和罚款则用于较轻的案件。
11. European & International Law Influences | 欧洲与国际法影响
Directives are EU legislative acts requiring member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means. Though the UK has left the EU, retained EU law continues to influence English law under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018.
指令是要求成员国实现特定结果但不规定手段的欧盟立法。尽管英国已脱离欧盟，根据2018年《欧洲联盟（退出）法》，保留的欧盟法律仍影响英国法。
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) articles guarantee rights such as the right to life (Article 2), prohibition of torture (Article 3), and the right to a fair trial (Article 6). UK courts must take Convention rights into account.
《欧洲人权公约》（ECHR）条款保障生命权（第2条）、禁止酷刑（第3条）以及公正审判权（第6条）等权利。英国法院必须考虑公约权利。
The principle of supremacy means that in areas where EU law applied, it took precedence over conflicting domestic law. Post-Brexit, this principle no longer applies to future legislation but continues for retained law.
最高效力原则意味着在适用欧盟法的领域内，欧盟法优先于相抵触的国内法。退欧后，这一原则不再适用于未来立法，但对保留法律继续有效。
12. Core Vocabulary for Legal Essays | 法律论文核心词汇
Use terms like "ratio decidendi", "obiter dictum", "per incuriam", and "distinguishing" precisely. Per incuriam means a decision made in ignorance of a relevant statute or binding authority, which can be overruled later.
请准确使用“ratio decidendi”、“obiter dictum”、“per incuriam”和“distinguishing”等术语。Per incuriam 指在不知相关法律或约束力权威下作出的判决，后续可被推翻。
Distinguishing occurs when a court finds material factual differences between a precedent and the current case, thus avoiding the binding ratio. Overruling happens when a higher court rejects a precedent’s principle and replaces it with a new one.
Distinguishing 指法院发现先例与当前案件存在重大事实差异，从而避开约束性判决理由。Overruling 则发生在上级法院拒绝某一先例原则并以新原则取而代之。
Persuasive authority may come from obiter dicta, decisions of the Privy Council, or courts in other common law jurisdictions. Although not binding, these sources can influence judicial reasoning significantly.
说服性权威可来自附带意见、枢密院判决或其他普通法司法管辖区的法院判决。虽无约束力，但这些来源能显著影响司法推理。
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