📚 A-Level CIE Politics: Glossary Quick-Study Guide | A-Level CIE 政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering political vocabulary is the first step to success in CIE A-Level Politics. This guide provides a thematic, bilingual glossary of essential terms, presented in clear English and Chinese pairs to support understanding and retention. Use it as a companion for revision, essays, and in-class discussions.
掌握政治学词汇是攻克 CIE A-Level 政治的第一步。这份指南以主题分类、中英双语呈现核心术语，用清晰的英文—中文配对阐释助力理解和记忆。无论是备考、撰写论文还是课堂讨论，都可以把它当作随身手册。
1. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power – The capacity of an individual or group to influence or control the actions of others, even against resistance. It can be exercised through force, persuasion, or manipulation.
权力 – 个人或群体影响、控制他人行动的能力，即便遭遇抵抗也能实现。权力可通过强制、说服或操纵等方式行使。
Authority – The legitimate right to exercise power, recognized by those over whom it is wielded. Max Weber identified three types: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational.
权威 – 行使权力的合法权利，得到被统治者的承认。马克斯·韦伯区分了三种类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型。
Coercion – The use of force or threats to compel someone to act in a certain way. Coercion may underpin power but often lacks legitimacy.
强制 – 使用武力或威胁迫使他人以特定方式行动。强制可以是权力的基础，但通常缺乏合法性。
Hegemony – Dominance of one social group over others, not just through force but also through ideological and cultural leadership, as theorised by Antonio Gramsci.
霸权 – 某一社会群体对其他群体的支配，不仅依靠武力，还通过意识形态和文化领导权实现，由安东尼奥·葛兰西提出。
2. Sovereignty and the State | 主权与国家
Sovereignty – The supreme and ultimate authority within a territory, free from external interference. It can be internal (control within the state) or external (state independence internationally).
主权 – 一国领土内至高无上、不受外来干涉的最终权力。可划分为对内主权（国内控制）和对外主权（国际独立）。
The State – A political entity with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and capacity to enter relations with other states. It claims the monopoly of legitimate force (Weber).
国家 – 拥有确定的领土、常住人口、政府以及与他国交往能力的政治实体。韦伯认为它要求垄断合法使用暴力的权力。
Nation – A group of people bound by shared culture, history, language, or ethnicity, often aspiring to self-rule. A nation‑state merges the political and national units.
民族 – 由共同文化、历史、语言或族裔联系在一起的人群，往往渴望自治。民族国家即将政治单元与民族单元合二为一。
Failed State – A state that can no longer perform core functions such as providing security, maintaining rule of law, or delivering basic services.
失败国家 – 无法再履行提供安全、维持法治或保障基本服务等核心职能的国家。
3. Democracy | 民主
Democracy – A system of government in which power is exercised directly by the people or through their elected representatives. Core features include free elections, civil liberties, and the rule of law.
民主 – 由人民直接或通过选举产生的代表行使权力的政体。核心特征包括自由选举、公民自由和法治。
Liberal Democracy – A form of representative democracy that protects individual rights and freedoms, limits government power through checks and balances, and operates under a constitution.
自由民主制 – 一种代议制民主，保护个人权利和自由，通过制衡限制政府权力，并依宪法运作。
Direct Democracy – Citizens themselves make policy decisions, often through referendums or initiatives, bypassing elected intermediaries.
直接民主 – 公民自己作出政策决定，常通过公投或公民倡议实现，绕过选举产生的代表。
Representative Democracy – Citizens choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Regular, free, and fair elections are the mechanism of accountability.
代议民主 – 公民选出代表代为决策。定期的、自由而公正的选举是问责的机制。
Populism – A political approach that claims to speak for 'the people' against a corrupt elite, often challenging established democratic institutions.
民粹主义 – 一种自称代表“人民”、反对腐败精英的政治方式，经常挑战既有民主制度。
4. Ideologies | 意识形态
Liberalism – An ideology centred on individual freedom, limited government, consent of the governed, and free markets. Classical liberalism stresses minimal state; modern liberalism accepts welfare state intervention.
自由主义 – 以个人自由、有限政府、被统治者同意和自由市场为核心的意识形态。古典自由主义强调最小国家；现代自由主义接纳福利国家干预。
Conservatism – An ideology valuing tradition, order, authority, and gradual change. It emphasises human imperfection and the importance of established institutions.
保守主义 – 重视传统、秩序、权威和渐进变革的意识形态。它强调人性的不完美和既有制度的重要。
Socialism – An ideology advocating social ownership or extensive regulation of the means of production and distribution, aiming to reduce inequality and promote community.
社会主义 – 主张生产资料和分配的社会所有制或广泛调控，旨在减少不平等和促进社群的意识形态。
Fascism – An extreme right‑wing ideology that exalts the nation and often race above the individual, led by a dictatorial leader, suppressing opposition and controlling society.
法西斯主义 – 一种极端右翼意识形态，崇尚国家（常包括种族）高于个人，由独裁领袖领导，压制反对派并控制社会。
Feminism – A diverse ideology focused on achieving gender equality by challenging patriarchy and the structures that subordinate women.
女权主义/女性主义 – 一种多元意识形态，致力于挑战父权制及压迫女性的结构，从而实现性别平等。
5. Government and Regimes | 政府与政体
Government – The set of institutions that make and enforce public policies. It can change without altering the political regime.
政府 – 制定和执行公共政策的一套机构。政府可以更迭而不改变政治政体。
Regime – The underlying rules, norms, and structures that define how power is organised and exercised in a state, e.g. democratic, authoritarian, theocratic.
政体 – 界定国家权力组织和行使方式的根本规则、规范和结构，例如民主政体、威权政体、神权政体。
Authoritarianism – A regime in which a single leader or small elite holds power, suppressing political pluralism and civil liberties while tolerating some social or economic freedoms.
威权主义 – 由单一领袖或少数精英掌权的政体，压制政治多元化和公民自由，但可能容许一定的社会或经济自由。
Totalitarianism – An extreme form of authoritarian rule that seeks total control over public and private life, through ideology, terror, and mass mobilisation.
极权主义 – 威权统治的极端形态，试图通过意识形态、恐怖和群众动员控制公共与私人生活的所有方面。
Pluralism – A theory or system in which multiple groups compete for influence, preventing any single group from dominating, often seen in liberal democracies.
多元主义 – 多个群体竞争影响力、避免单一群体垄断的理论或体制，常见于自由民主国家。
6. Political Culture and Participation | 政治文化与参与
Political Culture – The set of attitudes, beliefs, and values that shape the political behaviour of a society. Almond and Verba identified parochial, subject, and participant cultures.
政治文化 – 塑造社会政治行为的一套态度、信念和价值观。阿尔蒙德与维巴划分了地域型、臣民型和参与型文化。
Civic Culture – A mixed political culture balancing participant involvement with deference to authority, seen as a stabilising foundation for democracy.
公民文化 – 将参与者的政治介入与对权威的遵从相结合的混合政治文化，被视为民主的稳定基础。
Political Participation – The ways in which citizens engage with the political process, including voting, protest, party membership, and online activism.
政治参与 – 公民介入政治过程的方式，包括投票、抗议、入党以及网络行动主义。
Social Capital – The networks, norms, and trust that enable collective action. Robert Putnam argued its decline weakens democracy.
社会资本 – 使集体行动成为可能的网络、规范和信任。罗伯特·帕特南认为其衰退会削弱民主。
7. Elections and Voting Behaviour | 选举与投票行为
Electoral System – The rules that translate votes into seats. Major types include First‑Past‑The‑Post, Proportional Representation, and Mixed systems.
选举制度 – 把选票转化为席位的规则。主要类型包括简单多数制、比例代表制和混合制。
First‑Past‑The‑Post (FPTP) – The candidate with the most votes in a single‑member district wins, even without an absolute majority. It often produces a two‑party system.
简单多数制（FPTP） – 在单一选区中获得最多票数的候选人获胜，即便未达到绝对多数。常产生两党制。
Proportional Representation (PR) – Seats are allocated according to the percentage of votes each party receives, leading to multi‑party legislatures.
比例代表制（PR） – 按各党得票百分比分配席位，易形成多党议会。
Swing Voter – An individual not consistently loyal to one party, whose decision can change the outcome in a close election.
摇摆选民 – 不长期忠于某一政党的个人，其决定可能在势均力敌的选举中改变结果。
Class Dealignment – The weakening link between social class and voting choice, making voting behaviour more volatile.
阶级去阵营化 – 社会阶级与投票选择之间的联系减弱，使投票行为更加不确定。
8. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党制度
Political Party – An organised group seeking to gain governmental power through elections, guided by a shared ideology or platform.
政党 – 有组织、通过选举寻求执掌政府权力的团体，受共同意识形态或纲领指导。
Party System – The number of meaningful parties and the patterns of interaction among them. Examples: one‑party, two‑party, dominant‑party, multi‑party systems.
政党制度 – 重要政党的数量及其互动模式。例如一党制、两党制、主导党制和多党制。
Catch‑all Party – A party that broadens its appeal across social groups, de‑emphasising ideology to maximise votes, often at the cost of a distinct class base.
全民党/全方位党 – 淡化意识形态、力图吸引各社会群体的政党，以最大化选票，往往牺牲鲜明的阶级基础。
Left‑Right Spectrum – A conceptual continuum used to classify political positions, with the left generally advocating equality and the right valuing hierarchy and tradition.
左—右光谱 – 用于分类政治立场的概念连续体，左翼通常主张平等，右翼重视等级与传统。
9. Constitutions and the Judiciary | 宪法与司法
Constitution – A set of fundamental principles that define the structure, powers, and limits of government, and often enshrine citizens' rights. It may be codified (written in a single document) or uncodified (derived from multiple sources).
宪法 – 界定政府架构、权力及其限制，并常载明公民权利的一套根本原则。可以是成文宪法（单一文件）或不成文宪法（来源多样）。
Judicial Review – The power of courts to examine the constitutionality of laws and government actions, potentially striking them down if they breach the constitution.
司法审查 – 法院审查法律和政府行为是否违宪的权力，若违宪可将其推翻。
Judicial Independence – The principle that judges should be free from political pressure, enabling impartial rulings and upholding the rule of law.
司法独立 – 法官应免受政治压力，以便公正裁决并维护法治的原则。
Ultra Vires – A legal term meaning 'beyond the powers'. In administrative law, an action taken by a body that exceeds the authority granted to it is ultra vires.
越权（Ultra Vires） – 法律术语，意为“超越权限”。在行政法中，机构所作出的超越被授予权限的行为即为越权。
10. International Relations Key Concepts | 国际关系关键概念
Sovereignty (External) – The recognition by other states that a government has the exclusive right to exercise authority within its borders without outside intervention.
外部主权 – 其他国家承认某一政府在其疆界内拥有排他性地行使权力的权利，不受外部干涉。
Balance of Power – A principle of international relations whereby states form alliances or build capabilities to prevent any single state from dominating the system.
均势 – 国际关系中，各国通过结盟或增强实力，防止任何一个国家主导整个体系的原则。
Soft Power – The ability to influence others through attraction and persuasion (culture, values, policies) rather than coercion or payment, a concept coined by Joseph Nye.
软实力 – 通过吸引和说服（文化、价值观、政策）而非强制或收买来影响他国的能力，由约瑟夫·奈提出。
Globalization – The increasing interconnectedness of the world in economic, political, cultural, and technological terms, eroding state boundaries.
全球化 – 世界在经济、政治、文化和技术层面日益增长的互联性，侵蚀着国家边界。
Multipolarity – An international system in which power is distributed among several major states or blocs, as opposed to bipolarity (two) or unipolarity (one).
多极化 – 权力分散在若干大国或集团之间的国际体系，与两极（两个）或单极（一个）相对。
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