📚 Quick Guide to Legal Terminology for AS Eduqas Law | AS Eduqas 法律：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the vocabulary of law is essential for success in AS Eduqas Law. This guide breaks down key terms across the syllabus, from sources of law to criminal and civil concepts, providing clear definitions and contexts. Use it for quick revision and to sharpen your legal fluency.
掌握法律词汇是 AS Eduqas 法律课程成功的关键。本指南按照考纲拆解关键术语，涵盖法律渊源、刑事与民事概念，提供清晰定义与使用场景，助你快速温习并提升法律语言表达力。
1. Sources of Law | 法律渊源
Statutory law is law created by Parliament through Acts, also known as legislation. It is the highest form of domestic law and can override all other sources.
成文法是议会通过法案制定的法律，也称为立法。它是国内法的最高形式，可推翻所有其他法律渊源。
Common law, or case law, is made by judges through decisions in courts. The doctrine of precedent ensures consistency and gradual development of legal principles.
普通法（或称判例法）由法官通过法庭判决创制。遵循先例原则确保了法律原则的一致性和渐进发展。
Delegated legislation is law made by bodies to whom Parliament has given authority, such as statutory instruments, by-laws, and Orders in Council.
授权立法是由议会授予权力的机构制定的法律，包括法定文件、地方规章和枢密院令等形式。
2. Statutory Interpretation | 法规解释
The literal rule gives words their plain, ordinary dictionary meaning, even if the outcome seems harsh. The golden rule is a modification that avoids an absurd result by allowing a slight departure from the literal meaning.
字面规则赋予词语普通字典含义，即使结果可能不公。黄金规则是对字面规则的修正，允许轻微偏离以避免荒谬的结论。
The mischief rule examines what 'mischief' the statute intended to remedy and interprets the words to suppress that mischief. The purposive approach looks for the purpose of the legislation and interprets words widely to achieve that purpose, often used for EU-derived law.
弊端规则探究法规旨在弥补的“弊端”，并按照消除弊端的方向解释词语。目的性解释则寻找立法的目的，并对词语作广义解释以实现该目的，常用于欧盟渊源的法律。
3. Judicial Precedent | 司法先例
Stare decisis means 'stand by what has been decided'. The ratio decidendi is the binding part of a judgment – the legal reason for the decision. Obiter dicta are 'things said by the way', persuasive but not binding.
遵循先例（stare decisis）意为“遵照已决事项”。判决理由（ratio decidendi）是判决中具有约束力的部分，即做出该判决的法律依据。附随意见（obiter dicta）是“附带的话”，有说服力但无约束力。
The court hierarchy in England and Wales means lower courts are bound by higher ones. The Supreme Court is the highest, and its decisions bind all courts below it, though it can depart from its own previous decisions when it appears right to do so.
英格兰和威尔士的法院层级意味着下级法院受上级法院约束。最高法院位于最顶层，其判决约束所有下级法院，但最高法院自身在认为合适时可以偏离其先前的判决。
4. Criminal Law Basics | 刑法基础
A crime is an offence against the state, prosecuted by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). The standard of proof is beyond reasonable doubt, and the burden of proof usually lies on the prosecution.
犯罪是针对国家的违法行为，由皇家检察署起诉。证明标准是排除合理怀疑，举证责任通常由控方承担。
Actus reus is the 'guilty act' – the physical element of a crime, which can be an act, an omission in some cases, or a state of affairs. Mens rea is the 'guilty mind' – the mental element, such as intention, recklessness, or knowledge.
犯罪行为（actus reus）是“有罪行为”——犯罪的客观要素，可以是作为、某些情况下的不作为或某种状态。犯罪意图（mens rea）是“有罪心理”——主观要素，如故意、轻率或明知。
5. Actus Reus and Mens Rea in Detail | 犯罪行为与犯罪意图详解
For actus reus, the conduct must be voluntary. An omission can only give rise to liability where there is a duty to act, such as a statutory duty, contractual duty, or a duty arising from a special relationship.
就犯罪行为而言，行为必须是自愿的。不作为只有在存在作为义务时才能产生责任，例如法定义务、合同义务或源于特殊关系的义务。
Direct intent is where the defendant desires a particular consequence. Oblique intent arises when a consequence is virtually certain to occur and the defendant appreciates this, even if it was not his main aim.
直接故意是指被告渴望某个特定后果发生。间接故意出现在某一后果几乎必然发生，且被告明知这一点的情形中，即便该后果并非其首要目的。
Recklessness is taking an unjustified risk. In criminal law, it usually means the defendant foresaw a risk and unreasonably went on to take it (subjective recklessness).
轻率是指冒一个不正当的风险。刑法中的轻率通常指被告预见到风险却仍不合理地选择冒这个风险（主观轻率）。
6. Strict Liability | 严格责任
Strict liability offences require no proof of mens rea for at least one element of the actus reus. They are often regulatory crimes, such as selling alcohol to underage persons or food safety offences. The defence of due diligence is sometimes available.
严格责任犯罪对犯罪行为的至少一个要素不要求证明犯罪意图。它们通常是监管类犯罪，如向未成年人售酒或食品安全违法。有时可以提出尽职调查的抗辩。
The key reason for strict liability is to protect the public and encourage higher standards of care. However, it can lead to injustice where a defendant took all reasonable precautions but is still convicted.
设立严格责任的主要理由是保护公众和鼓励更高的注意标准。但也可能带来不公，例如被告已采取所有合理预防措施仍被定罪。
7. Defences in Criminal Law | 刑事辩护理由
Insanity, as a defence, requires the defendant to prove that, due to a disease of the mind, he either did not know the nature and quality of his act or did not know it was wrong. The special verdict is 'not guilty by reason of insanity'.
精神病作为辩护理由，需要被告证明因精神疾病，他或者不知道自身行为的性质和品质，或者不知道行为是错误的。特别裁决是“因精神错乱无罪”。
Automatism is a plea that the defendant's act was involuntary, caused by an external factor, such as a blow to the head or an extreme reaction to medication. It results in full acquittal if successful.
下意识行为（automatism）是一种辩护，主张被告的行为是非自愿的，由外部因素（如头部撞击或对药物的极端反应）引起。若成功，将获完全无罪释放。
Self-defence and the prevention of crime permit reasonable force. Whether force is reasonable is judged objectively, taking into account the circumstances as the defendant honestly believed them to be.
自我防卫和制止犯罪允许使用合理的武力。武力是否合理，是根据被告真诚相信的情境进行客观判断。
8. Tort Law: Negligence | 侵权法：过失
Negligence is a tort that aims to compensate for harm caused by carelessness. To prove negligence, the claimant must establish duty of care, breach of that duty, and causation of damage that is not too remote.
过失侵权旨在赔偿因疏忽造成的损害。要证明过失，原告必须确立注意义务、违反该义务、以及因果关系和非过于遥远的损害。
The Caparo three-part test for duty of care considers foreseeability of harm, proximity between parties, and whether it is fair, just, and reasonable to impose a duty. Breach is measured against the reasonable person standard.
Caparo 案确立的注意义务三要素检验法考虑损害的可预见性、当事人间的密切性以及施加义务是否公正合理。违反义务根据理性人标准衡量。
9. Civil Courts and Remedies | 民事法庭与救济
Civil cases start in the County Court for lower-value claims or the High Court for more complex or high-value cases. The standard of proof is on the balance of probabilities. Typical remedies are damages (compensation), injunctions, or specific performance.
民事案件在县法院（小额请求）或高等法院（复杂或高额案件）开始。证明标准是盖然性权衡。典型救济包括损害赔偿、禁制令或特定履行。
Damages can be special (quantifiable before trial, like medical expenses) or general (non-quantifiable, like pain and suffering). An injunction is a court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing something.
损害赔偿金可以是特别损害赔偿（审前可量化的，如医疗费用）或一般损害赔偿（不可量化的，如痛苦与折磨）。禁制令是法院要求一方作为或不作为某项行为的命令。
10. Criminal Courts and Sentencing | 刑事法庭与量刑
Summary offences are tried in the Magistrates' Court, indictable offences in the Crown Court, and either-way offences can be tried in either. The Magistrates' Court also holds preliminary hearings for indictable cases.
简易罪行由治安法院审理，可诉罪行由刑事法院审理，两可罪行则可在任一法院审理。治安法院还负责可诉案件的初步聆讯。
Sentencing aims include punishment, deterrence, rehabilitation, protection of the public, and reparation. Custodial sentences, community orders, fines, and discharges are the main options available to courts.
量刑的目的包括惩罚、威慑、改造、保护公众和补偿。监禁刑、社区令、罚金和释放是法院可选择的几种主要处罚方式。
11. Legal Personnel and Access to Justice | 法律人员与司法救济途径
Solicitors traditionally handle client contact and paperwork, while barristers provide advocacy and specialist legal advice. Legal executives are qualified lawyers in their own right, often specialising in a specific area of law.
事务律师传统上处理客户联络和文书工作，出庭律师则提供辩护和专业法律意见。法律行政人员本身也是合格律师，通常专精于某一法律领域。
Legal aid is state funding for legal advice and representation. It has been significantly reduced for civil matters but remains available for certain criminal cases and vulnerable groups. Conditional fee agreements ('no win, no fee') are an alternative funding mechanism.
法律援助是国家资助的法律咨询和代理。民事案件的法律援助已大幅削减，但仍适用于某些刑事案件和弱势群体。有条件收费协议（“不赢不收费”）是另一种资助机制。
12. Key Latin Terms and Citation | 关键拉丁语术语与案例引用
Common Latin terms include 'res ipsa loquitur' (the thing speaks for itself, used in negligence), 'novus actus interveniens' (new intervening act that breaks the chain of causation), and 'talis qualis' rule (you must take your victim as you find them).
常见拉丁语术语包括 res ipsa loquitur（事实本身说明问题，用于过失侵权）、novus actus interveniens（打破因果关系链的新介入行为）以及 talis qualis 规则（必须接受受害人原本的状况）。
Case citation follows a standard format: Claimant v Defendant [year] Court abbreviation page number. For example, 'Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562' refers to the claimant Donoghue, the defendant Stevenson, reported in the 1932 volume of the Appeal Cases at page 562.
案例引用遵循标准格式：原告诉被告 [年份] 法院缩写 页码。例如，“Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562” 指原告 Donoghue，被告 Stevenson，载于 1932 年《上诉案件公报》第 562 页。
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