📚 AS Eduqas Sociology: Key Terms Rapid Revision Guide | AS Eduqas 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key terms is essential for success in AS Eduqas Sociology. This guide presents must-know concepts across the specification in a clear, bilingual format, helping you build a solid foundation and retain definitions quickly.
掌握关键术语是 AS Eduqas 社会学考试成功的基础。本指南以清晰的双语形式梳理考纲中的必背概念，帮助你建立扎实的根基并快速记忆定义。
1. Culture and Socialisation | 文化与社会化
Culture: The whole way of life of a particular society, including its norms, values, beliefs, language and customs.
文化：一个特定社会的整体生活方式，包括其规范、价值观、信仰、语言和习俗。
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society, acquiring the norms, values and roles necessary for participation.
社会化：个体学习其社会文化的终身过程，在此过程中获得参与社会所必需的规范、价值观和角色。
Primary socialisation: The first and most intense stage of socialisation, occurring in early childhood within the family, where basic language, norms and values are internalised.
初级社会化：最早且最深刻的社会化阶段，发生在婴幼儿期的家庭中，内化基本的语言、规范与价值观。
Secondary socialisation: The ongoing process of learning the appropriate behaviour within smaller sections of wider society, through agencies such as education, peer groups, media and religion.
次级社会化：通过教育、同辈群体、媒体和宗教等机构，学习在更广泛社会中的适当行为的持续过程。
Agents of socialisation: The individuals, groups and institutions that carry out socialisation, including family, schools, peer groups, mass media, religion and the workplace.
社会化媒介：实施社会化的个人、群体和机构，包括家庭、学校、同辈群体、大众媒体、宗教和工作场所。
2. Norms, Values and Social Control | 规范、价值观与社会控制
Norms: Social rules or expectations that guide behaviour in specific situations; they can be formal (laws) or informal (customs).
规范：引导特定情境中行为的社会规则或期望；可以是正式的（法律）或非正式的（习俗）。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is desirable, good and worthwhile, which underpin a society's norms.
价值观：关于什么是可取、美好和有价值的深层信念，支撑着一个社会的规范。
Social control: The mechanisms used to maintain order, conformity and compliance with norms, ranging from subtle persuasion to formal sanctions.
社会控制：用以维持秩序、确保顺从和遵守规范的机制，范围从微妙的劝说到正式制裁。
Formal social control: Control exercised by authorised agencies such as the police, courts, schools and governments, often involving written rules and official sanctions.
正式社会控制：由警察、法院、学校和政府等授权机构实施的控制，通常涉及成文规则和官方制裁。
Informal social control: Control based on social interactions, such as disapproval, ridicule or ostracism, enforced through peer pressure and community expectations.
非正式社会控制：基于社会互动的控制，如非难、嘲笑或排斥，通过同伴压力和社区期望强制执行。
3. Social Identity and Self | 社会身份与自我
Identity: An individual's sense of self, shaped by social categories such as gender, ethnicity, class, nationality and age, as well as personal experiences.
身份：个体对自我的感觉，由性别、族裔、阶级、国籍和年龄等社会类别以及个人经历塑造。
Ascribed status: A social position assigned at birth or involuntarily assumed, such as son, daughter, or hereditary title.
先赋地位：在出生时即被赋予或非自愿获得的社会位置，如儿子、女儿或世袭头衔。
Achieved status: A social position gained through individual effort, talent or choice, such as doctor, athlete or graduate.
自致地位：通过个人努力、才能或选择获得的社会位置，如医生、运动员或毕业生。
Role: The expected behaviour associated with a particular status, carrying both rights and obligations.
角色：与特定地位相关的期望行为，既包含权利也包含义务。
Looking-glass self: Cooley's concept that we develop our self-image through how we imagine others perceive and judge us.
镜中我：库利的概念，指我们通过想象他人如何看待和评价自己来发展自我形象。
4. Social Class Stratification | 社会阶级分层
Social stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups into layers based on factors such as wealth, income, status and power.
社会分层：基于财富、收入、地位和权力等因素，将个体和群体划分为不同层级的等级排列。
Social class: A broad grouping of people who share similar economic and social circumstances, typically defined by occupation, income and lifestyle.
社会阶级：共享相似经济和社会环境的广泛人群，通常由职业、收入和生活风格定义。
Life chances: Weber's term for the opportunities individuals have to access valued resources such as health, education, housing and employment.
生活机会：韦伯的术语，指个体获得健康、教育、住房和就业等有价值资源的机会。
Material deprivation: A lack of physical resources such as adequate housing, income and nutrition, which can limit educational and social attainment.
物质剥夺：缺乏充足的住房、收入和营养等物质资源，可能限制教育及社会成就。
Cultural capital: Bourdieu's concept referring to non-economic resources such as knowledge, tastes, language and educational credentials that can confer advantage.
文化资本：布迪厄的概念，指知识、品味、语言和教育文凭等非经济资源，可带来优势。
5. Families and Households | 家庭与住户
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of a mother, father and their dependent children, living under the same roof.
核心家庭：由母亲、父亲及其受抚养子女组成的两代人家庭单位，居住在同一屋檐下。
Extended family: A family structure that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, often living nearby or together.
扩展家庭：超出核心单元包括亲属的家庭结构，如祖父母、姑姨叔伯，常居住在附近或共同生活。
Reconstituted family: A family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new cohabiting or marital arrangement.
重组家庭：一方或双方将前段关系中的子女带入新的同居或婚姻安排所形成的家庭。
Household: A person living alone or a group of people who share living arrangements and domestic facilities, irrespective of kinship ties.
住户：单独居住的个人或共享居住安排和家庭设施的一群人，不论亲属关系。
Instrumental role: Parsons' term for the breadwinner, task-oriented role in the family, traditionally assigned to men.
工具性角色：帕森斯的术语，指家庭中的养家者、任务导向角色，传统上分配给男性。
Expressive role: Parsons' term for the nurturing, emotional role in the family, traditionally associated with women and focused on maintaining harmony.
情感性角色：帕森斯的术语，指家庭中养育和情感角色，传统上与女性相关，侧重维持和谐。
6. Education: Processes and Inequality | 教育：过程与不平等
Hidden curriculum: The informal lessons, values and perspectives conveyed through the routines, rules and social interactions in school, beyond the official syllabus.
隐性课程：通过学校的常规、规则和社会互动传递的非正式课程外的经验、价值观和视角。
Labelling: The process of attaching a definition or category to a student, such as 'bright' or 'troublemaker', which can affect teacher expectations and student self-concept.
贴标签：给学生贴上如“聪明”或“捣蛋鬼”等定义或类别的过程，可能影响教师期望和学生自我概念。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a prediction or label, based on an initial false definition, evokes behaviour that makes the prediction come true.
自我实现的预言：基于最初错误定义的预测或标签引发行为，导致预言成真。
Material deprivation: In education, the lack of physical resources (e.g. quiet study space, textbooks, computers) that can hinder academic achievement.
物质剥夺：在教育中，缺少安静的学习空间、教科书、电脑等物质资源，可能阻碍学业成就。
Cultural deprivation: The deficiency in the cultural resources, attitudes and language skills that are valued by schools, often argued to affect working-class pupils.
文化剥夺：缺乏学校所看重的文化资源、态度及语言技能，常被论证为影响工人阶级学生。
7. Research Methods: Key Concepts | 研究方法：核心概念
Quantitative data: Information expressed in numerical form, often collected through surveys and official statistics, suited to measuring patterns and trends.
定量数据：以数字形式表达的信息，常通过问卷调查和官方统计收集，适用于衡量模式和趋势。
Qualitative data: Non-numerical information, such as in-depth interview transcripts, observations and open-ended responses, valued for providing detailed meanings.
定性数据：非数字信息，如深度访谈转录、观察和开放式回答，以提供详尽含义见长。
Reliability: The consistency of a research instrument; if repeated under the same conditions, it should yield similar results.
信度：研究工具的一致性；如果在相同条件下重复，应能产生相似结果。
Validity: The extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure, producing findings that accurately reflect social reality.
效度：研究方法测量其声称要测量的东西的程度，产生准确反映社会现实的发现。
Sampling: The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a target population to participate in a study. Techniques include random, stratified, snowball and opportunity sampling.
抽样：从目标总体中选择一部分个体参与研究的过程。技术包括随机抽样、分层抽样、滚雪球抽样和机会抽样。
Ethical considerations: Moral principles guiding research involving human subjects, including informed consent, confidentiality, avoidance of harm and the right to withdraw.
伦理考量：指导涉及人类受试者研究的道德原则，包括知情同意、保密、避免伤害和退出权。
8. Sociological Perspectives: Consensus and Conflict | 社会学视角：共识与冲突
Functionalism: A consensus theory that views society as a system of interconnected institutions, each performing functions that maintain stability and social order.
功能主义：一种共识理论，将社会视为由相互关联的制度组成的系统，每个制度履行维持稳定和社会秩序的功能。
Marxism: A conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx, emphasising class struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat over economic resources and power.
马克思主义：基于马克思思想的冲突视角，强调资产阶级和无产阶级之间围绕经济资源和权力进行的阶级斗争。
Feminism: A conflict perspective focusing on gender inequality, patriarchy and the ways in which society is structured to perpetuate male dominance.
女性主义：一种关注性别不平等、父权制以及社会结构如何维系男性支配地位的冲突视角。
Interactionism: A micro-level perspective examining how individuals actively construct their social world through everyday interactions, meanings and labelling.
互动主义：一种微观视角，考察个体如何通过日常互动、意义和贴标签主动建构其社会世界。
Postmodernism: An approach emphasising fluidity, diversity and the decline of grand narratives; it argues that society is fragmented and identities are increasingly chosen.
后现代主义：强调流动性、多样性和宏大叙事衰落的视角；认为社会是碎片化的，身份日益成为选择的结果。
9. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与族裔
Gender: The social and cultural expectations, roles and behaviours associated with being male or female, distinct from biological sex.
性别：与作为男性或女性相关的社会文化期望、角色和行为，区别于生物性征。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural heritage based on common ancestry, language, history, religion and traditions, which shapes group identity.
族裔：基于共同血统、语言、历史、宗教和传统的共享文化遗产，塑造群体身份。
Patriarchy: A system of society or government in which men hold the power and women are largely excluded from it.
父权制：男性掌握权力、女性在很大程度上被排斥在外的社会或治理体系。
Intersectionality: A framework for understanding how overlapping social identities, such as gender, ethnicity and class, combine to produce unique experiences of oppression or privilege.
交叉性：理解性别、族裔和阶级等重叠社会身份如何结合产生独特的压迫或特权经验的框架。
Racial discrimination: Unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their perceived race or ethnicity, manifesting in areas like employment, education and criminal justice.
种族歧视：基于所感知的种族或族裔对个体的不平等待遇，表现在就业、教育和刑事司法等领域。
10. Education Policy and Social Mobility | 教育政策与社会流动
Meritocracy: A system in which rewards and positions are allocated on the basis of individual ability and effort, where everyone ostensibly has an equal chance to succeed.
贤能主义：根据个人能力和努力分配奖励与职位的体系，表面上人人都有平等的成功机会。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals, families or groups within the stratification system, either upward or downward, between generations or within a single lifetime.
社会流动：个体、家庭或群体在分层体系内的升降移动，发生在代际之间或单个人生历程中。
Compensatory education: Policies designed to tackle cultural and material deprivation by providing extra resources to disadvantaged groups, such as Sure Start or Pupil Premium.
补偿性教育：旨在通过向弱势群体提供额外资源来应对文化和物质剥夺的政策，如 Sure Start 或 Pupil Premium。
Marketisation of education: Policies that introduce market forces into education, including parental choice, competition among schools and league tables.
教育市场化：将市场力量引入教育的政策，包括家长选择、学校间竞争和排名表。
Selection: The practice of allocating pupils to different schools or programmes on the basis of academic ability, as seen in grammar schools or setting and streaming.
选拔：根据学术能力将学生分配至不同学校或课程的做法，如文法学校或分班分组教学。
11. Media and Socialisation (Optional Theme) | 媒体与社会化（选修主题）
Mass media: Channels of communication that reach large, diverse audiences simultaneously, including television, newspapers, radio, film and digital platforms.
大众媒体：同时触达大量多样化受众的传播渠道，包括电视、报纸、广播、电影和数字平台。
Media representation: The ways in which the media portray particular groups, events and issues, often involving selection, construction and stereotyping.
媒体再现：媒体描绘特定群体、事件和议题的方式，常涉及选择、建构和刻板印象。
Moral panic: Coined by Stanley Cohen, an exaggerated overreaction by the media and authorities to a group or activity perceived as a threat to societal values.
道德恐慌：斯坦利·科恩提出的概念，指媒体和当局对被认为威胁社会价值观的群体或活动的过度反应。
Hypodermic syringe model: A media effects theory suggesting that the media injects ideas directly into a passive audience, leading to immediate and uniform responses.
皮下注射模式：一种媒体效果理论，认为媒体将观点直接注入被动受众，导致即刻而统一的反应。
Uses and gratifications model: An audience-centred approach arguing that individuals actively select and use media to fulfil needs such as diversion, personal relationships and identity formation.
使用与满足模式：以受众为中心的方法，认为个体主动选择和使用媒体以满足消遣、个人关系及身份建构等需求。
12. Summative Review and Memory Tips | 总结复习与记忆技巧
Mnemonics: Use acronyms like NOIR (Norms, Order, Informal/Formal, Roles) for social control or PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) for essay structure to anchor key ideas.
记忆术：使用首字母缩略词，如社会控制用 NOIR（规范、秩序、非正式/正式、角色）或论文结构用 PEEL（观点、证据、解释、链接）来固定关键主张。
Flashcards: Create bilingual flashcards with English term on one side and the associated definition in both English and Chinese on the other, testing recall daily.
闪卡：制作双语闪卡，一面写英文术语，另一面写英文及中文定义，每日检测回忆。
Concept mapping filling prophecy → differential achievement, visualising the chains that connect concepts.
概念图：绘制术语之间的联系，如贴标签→自我实现的预言→成就差异，将连接概念的链条可视化。
Application practice: Write a short paragraph applying three key terms to a scenario or exam question, ensuring you can use terminology accurately in context.
应用练习：写一段短文，将三个关键术语应用于情景或考题，确保你可在语境中准确使用术语。
Active recall: Cover definitions and try to reproduce them aloud; then check against the guide. Spaced repetition will move terms into long-term memory.
主动回忆：遮住定义，尝试大声复述；然后对照本指南检查。间隔重复会将术语移入长期记忆。
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