📚 AS CIE Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Revision Guide | AS CIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of philosophy is essential for success in the AS CIE examination. This guide breaks down the most frequently encountered terms into clear, digestible sections, pairing English explanations with bilingual Chinese translations to reinforce comprehension. Each section contrasts key concepts, uses tables for quick comparison, and aligns with the Cambridge International syllabus. Use this resource to sharpen your definitions and build a solid terminological foundation.
掌握哲学精准词汇是 AS CIE 考试成功的关键。本指南将最常见术语分解成清晰易懂的板块，以中英双语配对解释，加深理解。每个板块对比核心概念，利用表格快速比较，并紧扣剑桥国际考试大纲。运用这份资源打磨定义，构筑坚实的术语基础。
1. A Priori vs A Posteriori Knowledge | 先验与后验知识
tified independently of experience, relying solely on reason. Mathematical truths, such as '2 + 2 = 4' iori propositions because we can know them without conducting any empirical investigation.
先验知识的辩护不依赖于经验，仅依靠理性。数学真理如“2 + 2 = 4”是典型的先验命题，因为我们无需进行任何经验调查便可得知。
A posteriori knowledge, by contrast, depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence. 'The sky is blue' qualifies as a posteriori because we must observe the world to verify it. David Hume argued that all matters of fact are ultimately a posteriori.
后验知识则相反，依赖于感觉经验或经验证据。“天空是蓝色的”属于后验知识，因为我们必须观察世界才能证实。休谟认为，一切事实问题最终都是后验的。
| A Priori | A Posteriori |
|---|---|
| Known by reason alone | Known through experience |
| 例如：'All bachelors are unmarried' | 例如：'Water boils at 100 °C' |
2. Analytic vs Synthetic Truths | 分析真理与综合真理
An analytic truth is true in virtue of the meanings of the words alone; the predicate is contained within the subject. 'All triangles have three sides' is analytic because the concept of three-sidedness is part of the definition of a triangle. Such truths are often, though not always, a priori.
分析真理仅凭词语的含义就为真；谓词包含在主词之中。“所有三角形都有三条边”是分析的，因为三边性是三角形定义的一部分。这类真理通常是先验的，但并不必然绝对如此。
A synthetic truth goes beyond definitions, adding new information that is not already contained in the subject. 'This triangle is painted red' is synthetic because redness is not part of the concept of a triangle. Most empirical claims are synthetic a posteriori, but Kant argued for synthetic a priori truths, such as 'Every event has a cause'.
综合真理超出了定义范围，增添了主词原本不包含的新信息。“这个三角形涂成红色”是综合的，因为红色不是三角形概念的一部分。大部分经验主张是综合后验的，但康德主张存在综合先验真理，例如“每个事件都有原因”。
| Analytic | Synthetic |
|---|---|
| True by definition | True by how the world is |
| Predicate in subject | Predicate adds to subject |
3. Necessary vs Contingent Truths | 必然真理与偶然真理
A necessary truth is one that could not have been false; it holds in all possible worlds. '2 + 2 = 4' and 'No bachelor is married' y are necessary truths. In modal logic, they are propositions with the status of being necessarily true.
必然真理是那些不可能为假、在所有可能世界中都成立的真理。“2 + 2 = 4”和“没有单身汉是已婚的”都是必然真理。在模态逻辑中，它们具有必然真的地位。
A contingent truth could have been false; its truth depends on how the actual world happens to be. 'Paris is the capital of France' is contingent because, had history unfolded differently, another city might have held that status. The distinction is crucial for discussions of God's existence and moral facts.
偶然真理则有可能为假；其真值取决于现实世界的偶然状况。“巴黎是法国首都”是偶然的，因为如果历史进程不同，其他城市也许会成为首都。这一区分在讨论上帝存在与道德事实时至关重要。
4. Deductive vs Inductive Arguments | 演绎论证与归纳论证
A deductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It aims for certainty. The classic syllogism 'All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal' exemplifies valid deductive reasoning.
演绎论证主张：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。它追求确定性。经典三段论“所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死”展示了有效演绎推理。
An inductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion is probable or likely. It moves from specific observations to general principles. 'The sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore the sun will rise tomorrow' is a strong inductive inference, but not logically certain.
归纳论证主张：如果前提为真，结论可能或很可能为真。它从具体观察推出一般原理。“有记录以来太阳每天都升起；因此明天太阳会升起”是一个有力的归纳推理，但不具有逻辑必然性。
| Feature | Deductive | Inductive |
|---|---|---|
| Conclusion certainty | Must be true if premises true | Probably true |
| Example | Math proofs | Scientific predictions |
5. Validity and Soundness | 有效性与可靠性
Validity is a property of deductive arguments whereby IF the premises are true, the conclusion logically follows. A valid argument can have false premises. 'All fish are mammals; whales are fish; therefore whales are mammals' is valid in structure, though factually flawed.
有效性是演绎论证的一种属性：如果前提为真，结论便逻辑地得出。一个有效论证可以有假的前提。“所有鱼都是哺乳动物；鲸是鱼；所以鲸是哺乳动物”在结构上有效，尽管事实上错误。
Soundness requires a valid argument plus true premises. Only sound arguments guarantee a true conclusion. In the AS exam, you must precisely distinguish validity from soundness when evaluating classical arguments like Anselm’s ontological argument or Paley’s design argument.
可靠性要求论证有效且前提为真。只有可靠的论证才能保证结论为真。在 AS 考试中，评估安瑟伦本体论论证或佩利设计论证等经典论证时，必须精确区分有效性与可靠性。
6. Realism vs Anti-Realism | 实在论与反实在论
Realism about a domain asserts that the entities in that domain exist mind-independently. Moral realism, for example, holds that moral facts exist objectively, regardless of human opinion. Similarly, scientific realism maintains that electrons and quarks are real, not just useful fictions.
关于某个领域的实在论主张：该领域的实体独立于心灵而存在。例如，道德实在论认为道德事实客观存在，不受人类意见影响。类似的，科学实在论坚持电子和夸克是真实的，而不仅是有用的虚构。
Anti-realism denies mind-independent existence for the domain in question. Moral anti-realists (error theorists, emotivists) claim that moral statements do not describe objective facts. In the philosophy of religion, anti-realism about God interprets God as a human projection or a symbol for our highest ideals.
反实在论否认相关领域存在心灵独立的存在。道德反实在论者（错误论者、情绪主义者）声称道德陈述并不描述客观事实。在宗教哲学中，关于上帝的反实在论将上帝解释为人类的投射或最高理想的象征。
7. Dualism vs Monism | 二元论与一元论
Substance dualism, championed by Descartes, claims that reality consists of two fundamentally distinct substances: mental substance (mind, res cogitans) and physical substance (body, res extensa). The mind is non-spatial, private, and capable of thought, while the body is extended and mechanical.
实体二元论由笛卡尔倡导，主张实在由两种根本不同的实体构成：精神实体（心灵，res cogitans）与物质实体（身体，res extensa）。心灵不占空间、具有私人性和思考能力，而身体具有广延并服从机械规律。
Monism holds that there is only one kind of substance. Materialism (physicalism) asserts that everything is physical, including mental states, which are brain states. Idealism, by contrast, claims that reality is fundamentally mental. In AS philosophy, evaluating dualism often involves discussing the problem of interaction and the privacy of consciousness.
一元论认为只存在一种实体。唯物主义（物理主义）断言一切都是物理的，包括作为大脑状态的心理状态。唯心主义则相反，主张实在根本上是精神的。在 AS 哲学中，评估二元论时常涉及讨论交互作用难题与意识的私人性。
8. Utilitarianism vs Deontology | 功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism, developed by Bentham and Mill, is a consequentialist ethical theory stating that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or utility. It applies the Greatest Happiness Principle: act so as to produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for all sentient beings affected.
功利主义由边沁和密尔发展，是一种后果论伦理理论，主张正确的行为是能最大化整体幸福或功用的行为。它应用最大幸福原则：行动要能产生对所有有感知者而言最大限度的快乐与痛苦之平衡。
Deontology, associated with Kant, holds that the rightness of an action depends on its conformity to moral rules or duties, rather than its consequences. Kant's Categorical Imperative commands us to act only on maxims that we can will to become universal law, and to treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.
义务论与康德相关联，主张行为的正确性取决于其是否符合道德规则或义务，而非后果。康德的定言命令要求我们：只按照你同时愿意其成为普遍法则的准则去行动，并始终将人性作为目的，而绝不仅仅用作手段。
| Criterion | Utilitarianism | Deontology |
|---|---|---|
| Focus | Outcomes/consequences | Duties/rules |
| Key thinker | Bentham, Mill | Kant |
9. Virtue Ethics | 德性伦理学
Virtue ethics, inspired by Aristotle, focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than on specific acts or their consequences. It asks 'What sort of person should I be?' and emphasises the development of virtues (arete) such as courage, temperance, and wisdom, which enable one to flourish (eudaimonia).
德性伦理学受亚里士多德启发，关注道德主体的品格，而非具体行为或其后果。它追问“我应当成为什么样的人？”并强调培养勇气、节制、智慧等德性（arete），这些德性能使人实现幸福（eudaimonia）。
The Doctrine of the Mean is central: each virtue lies between two vices — excess and deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness. AS questions often ask you to compare virtue ethics with other normative theories, noting its emphasis on moral motivation and the role of practical wisdom (phronesis) in moral life.
中庸之道至关重要：每种德性都处于两个恶习——过度与不及——之间。例如，勇气是怯懦与鲁莽之间的中道。AS 考题常要求你将德性伦理学与其他规范理论进行比较，注意其对道德动机的强调和实践智慧（phronesis）在道德生活中的作用。
10. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Determinism claims that every event, including human actions, is causally necessitated by prior states of the world. Hard determinism concludes that free will is an illusion and moral responsibility is undermined. In theological contexts, predestination raises similar challenges for human freedom.
决定论声称每个事件，包括人类行为，都由此前的世界状态因果必然地决定。硬决定论推断自由意志是幻觉，道德责任因而被削弱。在神学语境中，预定论也对人类自由提出了类似挑战。
Libertarianism in this context asserts free will is incompatible with determinism, but maintains that we do possess free will. Compatibilism (soft determinism) holds that free will and determinism are compatible; freedom means acting according to one's desires without external coercion, even if those desires are themselves determined. AS papers frequently examine the implications for moral responsibility.
在这一语境中，自由意志主义主张自由意志与决定论不相容，但坚持我们确实拥有自由意志。相容论（温和决定论）认为自由意志与决定论可以相容；自由意味着按照自己的欲望行动而不受外部强制，即使这些欲望本身是被决定的。AS 试卷经常考察其对道德责任的影响。
11. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
The logical problem of evil challenges the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God in the face of suffering. Epicurus’ famous trilemma asks: If God is willing but unable to prevent evil, He is not omnipotent; if able but unwilling, He is not benevolent. Hence the God of classical theism appears inconsistent with the fact of evil.
恶的逻辑问题对全能与全善上帝之存在提出了挑战，因为世间存在苦难。伊壁鸠鲁的著名三难困境提问：如果上帝愿意但不能防止恶，祂就不是全能的；如果能但不愿意，祂就不是仁慈的。因此，古典有神论的上帝似乎与恶的事实不相容。
Theodicies attempt to justify God's permission of evil. Augustine’s free will defence argues that evil results from the misuse of free will, and a world with free agents who sometimes sin is better than a world without freedom. The evidential problem of evil, developed by William Rowe, focuses on the sheer amount and distribution of seemingly pointless suffering, making God's existence improbable.
神正论试图为上帝允许恶存在辩护。奥古斯丁的自由意志辩护认为，恶源于自由意志的滥用，而一个拥有自由道德主体但偶尔犯罪的世界优于一个没有自由的世界。由威廉·罗发展的恶的证据问题则聚焦于看似无谓的苦难的数量与分布，使上帝的存在变得不大可能。
12. Key Fallacies and Conceptual Distinctions | 常见谬误与概念区分
In AS Philosophy, you must identify common argumentative fallacies. Begging the question (petitio principii) occurs when an argument's premise assumes the truth of the conclusion. 'We know the Bible is true because it is the word of God, and we know it is the word of God because the Bible says so' is a circular argument.
在 AS 哲学中，你必须识别常见论证谬误。窃取论点（循环论证）发生在某一前提假定结论为真的情形。“我们知道圣经是真实的，因为它是上帝的话语；而我们知道它是上帝的话语，是因为圣经如此说”即是一个循环论证。
The is-ought gap, identified by Hume, warns against deriving normative ethical conclusions directly from descriptive factual premises. Just because something is natural does not entail that it is morally good. Similarly, the naturalistic fallacy, later named by G.E. Moore, argues that good cannot be defined in purely natural terms.
休谟提出的“是-应当鸿沟”警告不要从描述性事实前提直接推出规范性伦理结论。仅仅因为某事物是自然的，并不意味它在道德上是善的。同样，摩尔后来命名的“自然主义谬误”认为，“善”不能以纯粹自然主义的术语来定义。
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