📚 AS OCR Sociology: Key Terms and Mnemonics Guide | AS OCR 社会学：关键术语与速记指南
Terminology is the backbone of AS OCR Sociology. Without a firm grasp of key concepts, it is impossible to analyse society, evaluate theories or answer exam questions with precision. This guide breaks down essential terms with clear definitions and simple memory hooks, helping you build a mental glossary that sticks. Every entry is paired with a mnemonic or visual clue to speed up revision.
术语是 AS OCR 社会学的基础。如果对关键概念没有牢固的掌握，就不可能分析社会、评估理论或精准回答考题。本指南用清晰的释义和简单的记忆挂钩来拆解必备术语，帮助你建立牢固的脑内词汇库。每个词条都附有速记法或视觉线索，让复习事半功倍。
1. Socialisation and Culture | 社会化与文化
Socialisation refers to the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values and roles of their society. Think of 'social-eye-zation' – opening your eyes to how society works. Without socialisation, we would not know how to behave.
社会化指个体学习社会规范、价值观和角色的终身过程。可以记忆为“社会之眼”——睁开双眼看社会如何运转。没有社会化，我们就不知如何行为。
Primary socialisation ng of basic language, norms and values. Mnemonic: Primary = Primarily family, first stage.
初级社会化发生在儿童早期，主要在家庭内进行。它涉及基本语言、规范和价值观的学习。速记：初级 = 最初的阶段，主要靠家庭。
Secondary socialisation itutions such as schools, peer groups and the media. Mnemonic: Secondary = School, Society's second step.
次级社会化发生较晚，经由学校、同伴群体和媒体等机构实现。速记：次级 = 学校的第二步，进入更大的社会。
Culture is the whole way of life of a society, including its language, beliefs, values and norms. Think 'cultivate' – society cultivates a shared garden of meaning.
文化是一个社会的整体生活方式，包括其语言、信仰、价值观和规范。记忆法：文化像一座共享的意义花园，需要共同培育。
Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour; values red beliefs about what is good or desirable. Norms = Normal ways; Values = Valued beliefs.
规范是不成文的行为规则；价值观是关于什么是好或可取之事的共同信念。速记：规范即正常做法，价值观即珍视的信念。
2. Identity | 身份认同
Identity ial identity (group memberships). Mnemonic: ID = I Define myself and others define me too.
身份认同是个体如何看待和定义自己，以及他人如何看待自己。它有两面：个人身份（独特特质）和社会身份（群体归属）。速记：ID = 我定义我，他人也定义我。
Ascribed status nvoluntarily acquired (e.g. princess, son). Ascribed = Assigned by society, not by choice.
先赋地位是出生时或非自愿获得的社会位置（如公主、儿子）。先赋 = 社会赋予，不由选择。
Achieved status personal effort and merit (e.g. doctor, athlete). Achieved = Accomplished through action.
自致地位是通过个人努力和成绩获得的位置（如医生、运动员）。自致 = 自己赢来的成就。
Master status is the dominant identity that overrides other statuses, such as being labelled an 'ex-con'. It governs social interactions.
首要地位是压倒其他地位的支配性身份，如被贴上“前科犯”标签。它主导着社会互动。
Hybrid identity arises when individuals combine elements from different cultures into a new, fluid self. Think of mixing a unique smoothie.
混合身份当个体把不同文化元素融合成一个新的流动自我时产生。想象调制一杯独一无二的果昔。
3. Social Control and Deviance | 社会控制与越轨
Social control ridicule, ostracism). Mnemonic: Control = Conformity enforced through rules and reactions.
社会控制涉及社会用以确保人们遵从规范的机制。它分为正式（法律、警察）和非正式（嘲笑、排斥）。速记：控制 = 通过规则和反应强制遵从。
Deviance ll is behaviour that violates significant social norms. Not all deviance is criminal, but all crime is deviant. Deviance = Deviation from the expected.
越轨是违反重要社会规范的行为。并非所有越轨都是犯罪，但所有犯罪都属越轨。越轨 = 偏离常规轨道。
Sanctions orce social norms. Positive sanction = praise; negative sanction = fine. Sanction = social 'sanctioning' of behaviour.
制裁是强化社会规范的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁 = 表扬；负面制裁 = 罚款。制裁即行为被社会“核准”。
Anomie ils to regulate individual desires, often during rapid change. A-nomie = Absence of norms.
失范（涂尔干）指规范缺失状态，社会在剧变时无法约束个体欲望。速记：失范 = 失去规范。
4. Agents of Socialisation | 社会化主体
The family is the primary agent of socialisation, teaching language, basic norms and gender roles. Remember the phrase 'Family first'.
家庭是初级社会化的主体，教授语言、基本规范和性别角色。记住“家庭第一”。
Education transmits academic knowledge and the hidden curriculum – obedience, competition and punctuality. Education = Explicit and hidden curriculum.
教育传递学术知识和隐性课程——服从、竞争、守时。教育 = 显性加隐性课程。
Peer groups ce and develop identity outside adult control. Peer = Pressure-free learning among equals.
同伴群体为儿童提供在成人控制之外探索独立和建立身份的环境。同伴 = 平等者间的无压力学习。
Mass media shapes attitudes, values and consumer behaviour, often reinforcing stereotypes. Media = Mass influence, imitating life.
大众媒体塑造态度、价值观和消费行为，常强化刻板印象。媒体 = 大众影响力，模仿生活。
Religion instils moral codes and a sense of belonging; workplace ses adults into occupational roles and norms. Religion = Rules; Workplace = Working norms.
宗教灌输道德规范与归属感；职场 使成人社会化以符合职业角色与规范。宗教 = 规则；职场 = 工作规范。
5. Nature vs Nurture | 先天与后天
The nature r is argument suggests human behaviour is shaped by biology and genetic inheritance. Mnemonic: Nature = Natural, born that way.
先天论认为人类行为由生物学和基因遗传塑造。先天 = 天性，生来如此。
The nurture mphasises the role of social environment and learning. Nurture = Nourishment from society.
后天论强调社会环境和学习的作用。后天 = 社会滋养。
Feral children f early socialisation, supporting the nurture side. Feral = Found without social learning.
野孩案例（如珍妮和奥克萨娜）说明早期社会化的极端重要性，支持后天说。野孩 = 缺乏社会学习的发现案例。
Biological determinism sees behaviour as controlled by genes or hormones; social constructionism uced by cultural and historical contexts. Bio = bodies; Construction = created by culture.
生物决定论视行为由基因或激素控制；社会建构论视身份由文化和历史情境所生产。生物 = 身体；建构 = 文化创造。
6. Social Class | 社会阶级
Social stratification als into layers based on wealth, power and status. Strata = layers, like a rock formation.
社会分层是根据财富、权力与地位将个人分层的等级安排。分层就像岩层。
Social class in the Marxist tradition is defined by relationship to the means of production. The bourgeoisie own capital; the proletariat sell their labour. Bourgeoisie = Bosses; Proletariat = workers who Pro-labor.
社会阶级在马克思主义传统中由与生产资料的关系界定。资产阶级拥有资本；无产阶级出卖劳动力。资产阶级 = 老板；无产阶级 = 亲劳工的人。
Social mobility ter-generational mobility occurs between generations. Mobility = Moving between positions.
社会流动指在阶级阶梯上向上或向下的移动。代内流动发生在一个人生涯中；代际流动发生在两代人之间。流动 = 位置间的移动。
Life chances r quality of life, influenced by class position. Life chances = Likelihood of living well.
生活机会（韦伯）指个人提高生活品质的机会，受阶级位置影响。生活机会 = 过好日子的可能性。
7. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与族群
Sex refers to biological differences between males and females; gender refers to socially constructed roles and expectations. Sex = chromosomes; Gender = society's script.
生理性别指男女间的生物学差异；社会性别指社会建构的角色与期待。生理 = 染色体；性别 = 社会剧本。
Gender socialisation is the process of learning 'masculine' and 'feminine' behaviours, often through canalisation – ng children into gendered activities. Canalisation = channelling into pink or blue canals.
性别社会化是学习“男性化”和“女性化”行为的过程，常常通过引导——把孩子引入性别化活动渠道。引导 = 导入粉红或蓝色的渠道。
Ethnicity involves shared culture, history, language and traditions, while race refers to physical characteristics used to categorise people. Ethnicity is about 'ethos' (culture); race is about physical traits often misused.
族群涉及共享的文化、历史、语言和传统，而种族指用来对人进行分类的身体特征。族群关乎“族魂”（文化）；种族关乎常被误用的身体特征。
Ethnic identity can be a source of pride and resistance, but can also be stigmatised. Think of it as a badge of belonging.
族群认同可以是自豪和抵抗的来源，也可能被污名化。把它看作归属徽章。
8. Research Methods: Key Vocabulary | 研究方法：关键术语
Primary data is information collected firsthand by the researcher (e.g. interviews). Primary = Pro-active collection.
一手数据是研究者亲自收集的信息（如访谈）。一手 = 亲手采集。
Secondary data sts, such as official statistics or historical documents. Secondary = Second-hand sources.
二手数据是已经存在的信息，如官方统计或历史文献。二手 = 现成的资料。
Quantitative data is numerical and can be measured objectively; qualitative data d is non-numerical and focuses on meanings and experiences. Quant = Quantity (numbers); Qual = Quality (words).
定量数据是数字形式且可客观测量；定性数据是非数字的，关注意义和体验。定量看数量；定性看质感和话语。
Operationalisation bstract concepts into measurable variables. Operationalise = make it Operable in research.
操作化是把抽象概念转化为可测量变量的过程。操作化 = 让概念在研究中可操作。
9. Quantitative and Qualitative Methods | 定量与定性方法
Questionnaires collect standardised data from large samples quickly but may suffer from low response rates. Think of them as 'question machines'.
问卷可快速从大样本中收集标准化数据，但可能回复率低。把它想象成“问题机器”。
Structured interviews use fixed questions, ensuring comparability but limiting depth. They are like verbal questionnaires.
结构式访谈使用固定问题，确保可比性但限制深度。如同口头问卷。
Unstructured interviews ations that yield rich qualitative data but are time-consuming. Unstructured = Unscripted.
非结构式访谈是开放式对话，产出丰富的定性资料，但耗时。非结构 = 无脚本。
Participant observation udied. It can be overt (open) or covert (undercover). Observation = Obtaining inside view.
参与观察法要求研究者加入被研究群体。可以是公开的或隐蔽的。观察 = 取得内部视角。
Official statistics provide large-scale data but may be socially constructed. Statistics = State's numbers, sometimes shaped by definitions.
官方统计提供大规模数据，但可能是社会建构的。统计 = 国家的数字，有时被定义塑造。
10. Sampling Techniques | 抽样技术
Random sampling gives every member of the population an equal chance of selection. Random = Lottery-style pick.
随机抽样让总体中每个成员都有均等的被选机会。随机 = 像抽奖一样挑选。
Stratified sampling a (e.g. age bands) and samples proportionally. Stratified = Strata selected in proportion.
分层抽样把总体分成若干层（如年龄组），然后按比例抽取。分层 = 按层按比例选。
Quota sampling f people from each category until the quota is filled. Quota = Quick pick to fill a quota.
配额抽样从每个类别选取固定人数，直至配额填满。配额 = 快速找人满额。
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial contacts to reach a hidden population. Snowball = rolling sample that grows.
滚雪球抽样依靠初始联系人介绍来接触隐藏群体。雪球 = 越滚越大的样本。
Opportunity sampling simply selects whoever is easily available. Opportunity = whoever is On the spot.
便利抽样只选最容易接触到的人。便利 = 随手可得。
11. Validity and Reliability | 效度与信度
Validity easure. A valid study reflects genuine social reality. Validity = Valid, truthful picture.
效度关乎研究是否真正测量了它声称要测量的东西。有效的研究反映真实的社会现实。效度 = 真实的画面。
Reliability ere repeated, it would produce the same results. Reliability = Replicability, consistency.
信度指如果重复研究，会得到同样结果。信度 = 可复制性，一致性。
Representativeness to is the extent to which a sample mirrors the target population. Representative = Reflects the population.
代表性是样本多大程度反映目标总体。代表性 = 反映人口特征。
Generalisability ond the research setting to the wider population. General = go beyond the specific sample.
可推广性指研究结果可以推广到更广泛人群。可推广 = 超越特定样本。
A study can be reliable but not valid (consistent but measuring the wrong thing), just like a broken clock that always shows the same wrong time.
一项研究可能信度高而效度低（一致但测错了对象），就像一只坏钟每次都显示同一个错误时间。
12. Ethical Issues | 伦理问题
Informed consent bout the research aims and procedures. Consent = Conscious choice with full understanding.
知情同意要求参与者在充分了解研究目的和程序后作出同意。同意 = 充分理解下的自觉选择。
Confidentiality means researchers promise not to disclose personal information publicly. Confidential = Con-fide privately.
保密指研究者承诺不公开个人信息。保密 = 私下倾诉受保护。
Anonymity ensures that participants cannot be identified from the data. Anonymity = No name, unidentifiable.
匿名确保参与者无法从数据中被识别。匿名 = 无名，不可识别。
Deception should be avoided unless necessary and must be followed by debriefing. Mild deception may be justified but harm is not.
欺骗除非必要应避免，且必须随后进行事后说明。轻微欺骗可能合理，但伤害不可。
The right to withdraw allows participants to leave the study at any time without penalty. Withdraw = Walk away freely.
退出权允许参与者随时无惩罚地离开研究。退出 = 自由走开。
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