📚 GCSE Cambridge Philosophy: Quick Vocabulary & Terminology Memorisation Guide | GCSE 剑桥哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the key terms in GCSE Cambridge Philosophy is essential for high marks. This guide presents core concepts across the main topic areas, with simple definitions and paired explanations in English and Chinese, helping you build a solid mental glossary for the exam.
掌握 GCSE 剑桥哲学中的关键术语是取得高分的基础。本指南涵盖各大主题的核心概念，提供中英双语的简明定义和对照解释，帮助你在备考中建立起牢固的术语体系。
1. Epistemology Essentials | 认识论基础
A priori knowledge refers to knowledge that can be known independently of sensory experience, by reasoning alone. For example, 'All bachelors are unmarried' is an a priori truth.
先验知识 指不依赖感官经验、仅凭推理就能获得的知识。例如 “所有单身汉都未婚” 就是一个先验真理。
A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that depends on experience or empirical evidence. You know that water boils at 100°C a posteriori, through observation.
后验知识 是依赖经验或实验证据的知识。你通过观察才后验地知道水在 100°C 沸腾。
Empiricism claims that all knowledge ultimately comes from sense experience. John Locke compared the mind to a 'blank slate' at birth.
经验主义 主张一切知识最终都来自感官经验。约翰 · 洛克将心灵比作出生时的 “白板”。
Rationalism argues that reason alone, not the senses, is the primary source of knowledge. René Descartes sought certainty through rational doubt.
理性主义 认为理性而非感官是知识的主要来源。勒内 · 笛卡尔试图通过理性怀疑寻找确定性。
Scepticism questions whether knowledge is possible at all. An extreme sceptic might doubt the existence of the external world.
怀疑论 质疑知识是否真的可能。一个极端的怀疑论者甚至会怀疑外部世界的存在。
2. Metaphysics Made Memorable | 形而上学易记要点
Substance is what a thing fundamentally is, that which bears properties but is not itself a property. For Aristotle, a substance is an individual thing, like a particular horse.
实体 是事物的根本所在，它承载各种属性而自身不是属性。在亚里士多德看来，实体就是个体事物，比如某一匹具体的马。
Determinism is the thesis that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by prior events. If determinism is true, free will might be an illusion.
决定论 认为包括人类行为在内的每一个事件都由先前的事件因果决定。如果决定论成立，自由意志可能只是幻觉。
Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action without being compelled. Libertarians argue we really do have free will.
自由意志 指在没有强制的情况下，在不同的行动方案之间做出选择的能力。自由意志论者认为我们的确拥有自由意志。
Dualism holds that mind and body are two fundamentally different kinds of substance. Descartes’s interactionist dualism proposed they interact in the pineal gland.
二元论 认为心灵和身体是两种根本不同的实体。笛卡尔的互动二元论提出二者在松果腺中相互作用。
Materialism asserts that everything, including the mind, is physical. Consciousness is just brain activity, according to materialists.
唯物主义 主张包括心灵在内的一切都是物质的。唯物主义者认为意识不过是大脑的活动。
3. Ethics Key Terms | 伦理学关键术语
Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that the best action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure. Bentham and Mill are the key proponents.
功利主义 是一种伦理理论，认为最佳的行动就是使总体幸福或快乐最大化的行动。边沁和密尔是主要的倡导者。
Deontology judges the morality of an action based on rules, duties, or intentions, not on consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative is a deontological principle.
义务论 根据规则、义务或意图来判断行为的道德性，而非依据后果。康德的绝对命令就是一个义务论原则。
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than on rules or consequences. Aristotle’s concept of the 'golden mean' is central to virtue ethics.
美德伦理学 关注道德行为者的品格，而非规则或后果。亚里士多德的 “中庸之道” 是美德伦理学的核心概念。
Categorical imperative is Kant’s fundamental moral principle: act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will to become a universal law.
绝对命令 是康德的基本道德原则：只按照你同时愿意其成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动。
Moral relativism holds that moral judgements are true or false only relative to a particular culture or individual standpoint. It denies universal moral truths.
道德相对主义 认为道德判断的真假只是相对于特定文化或个人立场而言。它否认存在普遍的道德真理。
4. Philosophy of Religion Terms | 宗教哲学术语
Theism is belief in the existence of a personal God who created the world and sustains it. Christianity, Islam and Judaism are theistic religions.
有神论 是信仰一位创造了世界并维系世界的位格神。基督教、伊斯兰教和犹太教都是有神论宗教。
Atheism is the absence of belief in any deities. Atheists may base their view on a lack of evidence or the problem of evil.
无神论 指不相信任何神祇。无神论者的观点可能基于证据的缺乏或者恶的问题。
Teleological argument argues for God’s existence from the apparent order and purpose in nature, comparing it to a watch that implies a watchmaker.
目的论论证 从自然界明显的秩序和目的出发论证上帝存在，把自然比作一块手表，暗示着一位钟表匠。
The problem of evil challenges belief in an all‑powerful and perfectly good God. If God is both powerful and good, why does evil exist?
恶的问题 对全能至善的上帝的信仰提出挑战：如果上帝既全能又全善，为什么还有恶存在？
Theodicy is a defence or justification of God’s goodness in the face of evil. Augustine’s theodicy blames human free will for the presence of evil.
神义论 是在面对恶时为上帝的良善所作的辩护或说明。奥古斯丁的神义论将恶的存在归咎于人类的自由意志。
5. Political Philosophy in a Nutshell | 政治哲学概要
Social contract is an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and accept certain moral and political obligations. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau each developed a version.
社会契约 是个人之间为组成社会并接受特定道德与政治义务而达成的隐含协议。霍布斯、洛克和卢梭各自提出了不同版本的社会契约论。
State of nature describes a hypothetical condition without government or laws. For Hobbes, life in this state was 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'.
自然状态 描述了一种假设的没有政府或法律的状态。在霍布斯看来，这种状态下的生活 “孤独、贫困、污秽、野蛮且短暂”。
Sovereignty is the supreme authority within a territory. In a democratic state, sovereignty ultimately resides with the people.
主权 是一个领土内的最高权威。在民主国家，主权最终掌握在人民手中。
Justice concerns the fair distribution of benefits and burdens in society. Rawls’s theory of justice as fairness famously asks what rules we would choose behind a 'veil of ignorance'.
正义 涉及社会中利益和负担的公平分配。罗尔斯的 “作为公平的正义” 理论著名地追问，在 “无知之幕” 背后我们会选择什么样的规则。
Rights are entitlements or permissions. Natural rights are held to be universal and inalienable, while legal rights are created by a society’s laws.
权利 是应得的资格或许可。自然权利被认为是普遍且不可剥夺的，而法律权利则由社会的法律所创设。
6. Logic and Argument Terms | 逻辑与论证术语
Premise is a statement that supports the conclusion of an argument. In a valid argument, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
前提 是支持论证结论的陈述。在一个有效论证中，如果所有前提为真，则结论必然为真。
Conclusion is the statement that the argument tries to prove or establish. It follows from the premises.
结论 是论证试图证明或确立的陈述，它由前提推演而来。
Validity refers to the logical structure of an argument: an argument is valid if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
有效性 指论证的逻辑结构：一个论证是有效的，当不可能前提真而结论假。
Soundness is a property of an argument that is both valid and whose premises are actually true. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.
可靠性 是论证同时具有有效性与真实前提的性质。一个可靠的论证能保证结论为真。
Fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that makes an argument invalid or unsound. Common fallacies include ad hominem and straw man.
谬误 是推理中的缺陷，导致论证无效或不可靠。常见谬误包括人身攻击和稻草人谬误。
Ad hominem fallacy attacks the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. It fails to engage with the reasoning.
人身攻击谬误 攻击提出论证的人，而非论证本身。这没有真正触及推理过程。
7. Mind and Body Glossary | 心灵与身体术语集
Mind–body problem is the question of how mental states like thoughts and sensations relate to the physical states of the brain. It challenges philosophers to explain consciousness.
心身问题 指思想、感觉等心理状态如何与大脑的物理状态相关联。它要求哲学家解释意识。
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the painfulness of pain. They are central to debates about physicalism.
感受质 是意识经验中主观的、质的方面，比如红色的 “红感” 或疼痛的 “痛感”。它们是物理主义争论的核心。
Identity theory holds that mental states are identical to brain states. For instance, pain is simply a certain kind of neural firing.
同一论 认为心理状态就是大脑状态。例如，疼痛就是某种特定的神经放电。
Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles: pain is whatever state is caused by bodily damage and causes wincing and withdrawal, whether in a brain or in silicon.
功能主义 通过因果角色来定义心理状态：疼痛就是由身体损伤引起、并导致畏缩和退缩的那种状态，不论它发生在大脑中还是硅片中。
Consciousness is the state of being aware of oneself and one’s environment. It remains one of the hardest problems in philosophy.
意识 是意识到自身和周围环境的状态。它至今仍是哲学中最困难的问题之一。
8. Aesthetics in Brief | 美学简明术语
Beauty is a property of an object, person, or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Plato saw beauty as an ideal Form.
美 是物体、人或者观念的一种属性，能给人带来愉悦或满足的感性体验。柏拉图将美视为一种理想的形式。
Sublime refers to an experience of awe and vastness that goes beyond mere beauty, often mixed with terror. Kant analysed the sublime as a feeling of reason’s superiority over nature.
崇高 指超越单纯美感、常混有惊惧的敬畏与浩瀚体验。康德将崇高分析为理性面对自然时产生的优越感。
Taste is the ability to make aesthetic judgements. Hume proposed that real judges of taste require delicacy of perception, practice, and freedom from prejudice.
品味 是作出审美判断的能力。休谟提出，真正的品味评判者需要敏锐的感知、练习以及不存偏见。
Aesthetic experience is the distinctive kind of experience we have when engaging with art or nature, marked by disinterested pleasure. It is often contrasted with practical concerns.
审美经验 是我们在欣赏艺术或自然时获得的独特体验，其特点是无利害关系的愉悦。它常与实用关切相对照。
Representation in art refers to the depiction of objects, people, or scenes. Theories of representation debate whether art imitates reality or creates its own meanings.
再现 在艺术中指对物体、人物或场景的描绘。关于再现的理论争论艺术是模仿现实还是创造自身意义。
9. Quick-Reference Thinkers and Movements | 核心思想家与流派速查
Platonic realism asserts that abstract objects, like the Form of the Good, exist independently of the mind and the physical world. It is foundational to much Western philosophy.
柏拉图实在论 断言诸如 “善的形式” 这样的抽象对象独立于心灵和物理世界而存在。这是许多西方哲学的基础。
Empiricism, championed by Locke and Hume, insists that all concepts and knowledge stem from experience. It stands in contrast to innate ideas.
经验主义 由洛克和休谟所倡导，坚持一切概念和知识都源于经验。这与天赋观念论相对立。
Existentialism, explored by Sartre, stresses individual freedom, choice, and the idea that 'existence precedes essence'. We are what we choose to be.
存在主义 由萨特所探索，强调个体自由、选择以及 “存在先于本质”。我们成为自己所选择的样子。
Pragmatism holds that the meaning or truth of an idea lies in its practical consequences. William James and John Dewey developed pragmatism as a method of enquiry.
实用主义 认为一个观念的意义或真理性在于其实际效果。威廉 · 詹姆斯和约翰 · 杜威将实用主义发展为一种探究方法。
Utilitarianism, associated with Bentham and Mill, is both an ethical and a political movement. It recommends actions and laws that promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
功利主义 与边沁和密尔相关，既是伦理学又是政治运动。它倡导那些促进最大多数人最大幸福的行为和法律。
10. Tips for Memorising Philosophy Terminology | 哲学术语记忆技巧
Use etymology: Many terms have Greek or Latin roots. Knowing that 'epistemology' comes from epistēmē (knowledge) helps you recall it is the study of knowledge.
利用词源： 许多术语有希腊或拉丁语词根。知道 “epistemology” 源自 epistēmē（知识）有助于你记住它是对知识的研究。
Create flashcards with the English term on one side and the Chinese definition on the other. Test yourself daily to strengthen long-term memory.
制作单词卡： 一面写英文术语，另一面写中文定义。每天自测，强化长期记忆。
Make conceptual maps linking related ideas: draw a diagram connecting Empiricism, Rationalism and Scepticism under the umbrella of Epistemology.
绘制概念图： 链接相关概念，例如在认识论这一大概念下画出经验主义、理性主义和怀疑论之间的关系图。
Apply terms to real examples: When you hear a politician attacking a rival’s character, label it an ad hominem fallacy. This anchors definitions in everyday situations.
用实例套用术语： 当你听到政客攻击对手的品格时，把它标记为 “人身攻击谬误”。这样就能把定义扎根于日常情境中。
Practise bilingual explanation: After reading a definition in English, close the book and try to explain it clearly in Chinese. This mirrors the paired format of this guide and tests true understanding.
练习双语解释： 读完英文定义后，合上书试着用中文清晰解释。这与本指南的对照格式一致，同时检验你是否真正理解。
Use short, memorable phrases like 'A priori = prior to experience' and 'Utilitarianism = greatest happiness'. Simplify to retain more.
用简短易记的口诀： 比如 “A priori = 先于经验”，“功利主义 = 最大幸福”。简化才能记得住。
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