📚 GCSE Cambridge Sociology: Vocabulary and Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | GCSE剑桥社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is the key to unlocking full marks in your Cambridge IGCSE Sociology exams. This guide breaks down the essential terms into manageable thematic sections, pairing each with a concise definition and a memory hook where possible. Use both the English and Chinese explanations to reinforce your understanding in two languages.
掌握社会学术语是拿下剑桥 IGCSE 社会学高分的钥匙。这份指南将核心词汇按主题拆解，每个术语都配有简明定义与记忆钩子。通过中英双语解释，帮助你从两个语言维度巩固理解，实现快速记忆。
1. Sociology Core Concepts | 社会学核心概念
Society o live in a defined territory, share a common culture and interact with one another. Think 'soci' = companion, 'ety' = state of being — a state of companionship.
社会：居住在一定地域、共享文化并相互交往的大群体。记忆：“社”即群体，“会”即相聚——群体的相聚状态。
Social structure: The patterned social arrangements that shape and are shaped by individual actions. Imagine the skeleton of society — invisible but giving shape to all social life.
社会结构：塑造个体行动又被个体行动再生产的模式化社会安排。把它想象成社会的骨架——看不见却支撑着全部社会生活。
Social action: The meaningful behaviour of individuals that takes account of others and is oriented towards them. Remember Weber: action only makes sense when we understand the meaning behind it.
社会行动：个体考虑他人并以他人为导向的有意义行为。韦伯提示：只有理解了行动背后的意义，行动才说得通。
Norms: Unwritten rules of behaviour shared by members of a society. Think 'normal' — norms tell us what is considered normal conduct.
规范：社会成员共有的不成文行为规则。想一想“正常”——规范就是告诉我们什么才算是正常行为。
Values: Broad beliefs about what is good, desirable and worthwhile. Values are the compass; norms are the directions that follow from it.
价值观：关于善、可欲和有价值的广义信念。价值观是指南针，规范则是依据指南针给出的具体方向。
Status t can be ascribed (given at birth, e.g. princess) or achieved (earned, e.g. doctor). Think 'stat' = position, like a statue standing in a designated spot.
地位：一个人占据的社会位置。可分为先赋地位（如王室出生）和自致地位（如医生）。记忆：“地”位就像一尊雕像被放置在特定位置。
Role: The set of expectations, duties and behaviours attached to a status. If status is your place on the stage, role is the script you perform.
角色：附着于地位的一系列期望、义务和行为。若地位是你在舞台上的站位，角色就是你所演出的剧本。
Culture: The whole way of life of a society, including language, norms, values, customs and material objects. 'Cult' + 'ure' — the cultivation of human life.
文化：一个社会的整体生活方式，包括语言、规范、价值观、习俗和物质产品。“文”即文饰，“化”即教化——对人生方式的培养。
Identity: How individuals see and define themselves, and how others define them. It is both personal and social. Think 'I-dentity' — who I am.
身份/认同：个体如何看待和定义自己，以及他人如何定义自己。它既是个人性的也是社会性的。记忆：“身份”即“我之为我”。
2. Sociological Perspectives | 社会学视角
Functionalism: A consensus theory that sees society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability, like the organs in a body. Think 'function' — each part has a function to keep the whole healthy.
功能论：一种共识理论，将社会视为相互关联的部分共同维持稳定的系统，好比身体的器官。记忆：“功能”——每个部分都发挥功能以保持整体健康。
Marxism: A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, focusing on class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers). The economic base shapes the superstructure. Visualise two wrestlers labelled 'haves' and 'have-nots'.
马克思主义：源自马克思的冲突理论，关注资产阶级（所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级斗争。经济基础决定上层建筑。想象两个分别标着“有产者”和“无产者”的摔跤手。
Feminism d patriarchy. Different strands include liberal, radical and Marxist feminism. Memory aid: 'fem' = female; the lens that puts women's experiences at the centre.
女权主义：审视性别不平等与父权制的冲突视角，包括自由派、激进派和马克思主义女权主义等分支。记忆：“女权”即作为女性的视角，将女性经验置于分析中心。
Interactionism: A micro-level approach that focuses on how individuals create meanings through everyday interactions, using symbols like language and gestures. Imagine a magnifying glass zooming in on face-to-face encounters.
互动论：微观取向，关注个体如何通过日常互动、借助语言和手势等符号创造意义。想象一面放大镜，对准面对面的相遇。
Labelling: The process of attaching a definition or stereotype to an individual or group, which can influence their self-identity and behaviour. A label can become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签化：将某种定义或刻板印象贴附于个体或群体的过程，这会影响其自我认同和行为。标签可能成为自我实现的预言。
Consensus vs conflict ct theories (e.g. Marxism) see it as based on power struggles and inequality. Remember the 'c' in consensus = cooperation.
共识与冲突：共识理论（如功能论）视社会基于共享价值观；冲突理论（如马克思主义）视社会基于权力斗争和不平等。记忆：“共”识即共同合作。
3. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification: The division of society into layers (strata) ranked in a hierarchy, based on factors like class, gender, ethnicity or age. Visualise a layer cake where some tiers have more cream than others.
社会分层：依据阶级、性别、种族或年龄等因素将社会划分为有等级层次的层系。想象一块蛋糕，有些层奶油更多。
Class: A grouping of people with similar economic and social positions, often defined by occupation, income and wealth. Think of classic social classes: upper, middle, working.
阶级：经济和社会地位相近的人群，常由职业、收入和财富界定。想想经典的阶级划分：上层、中层和工人阶级。
Social mobility: Movement of individuals or groups between social strata. It can be upward, downward, or horizontal. 'Mobile' — the ability to move up or down the ladder.
社会流动：个体或群体在不同社会层级间的移动，包括向上流动、向下流动和水平流动。“流动”正如在阶梯上移动。
Life chances: The opportunities each individual has to achieve desirable goods and a good quality of life, influenced by class, gender, ethnicity, etc. Coined by Weber. Ask: What chances does your birth give you?
生活机会：个体获得合意之物和良好生活品质的机会，受阶级、性别、种族等影响，韦伯提出。不妨自问：出身给了你哪些机会？
Wealth vs income: Wealth is the stock of assets owned (houses, shares, savings); income is the flow of money received (wages, benefits). Picture wealth as a reservoir, income as a stream feeding it.
财富与收入：财富是拥有的资产存量（房产、股票、存款）；收入是收到的货币流量（工资、福利）。形象比喻：财富如同水库，收入是注入水流的溪流。
Absolute poverty , safe drinking water, sanitation, health, shelter and education. Below a fixed threshold. 'Absolute' = no ifs, no buts — basic survival is not met.
绝对贫困：严重缺乏食物、安全饮水、卫生设施、健康、住所和教育等基本人类需求，低于固定最低标准。“绝对”意为无任何条件可讲——基本生存无法满足。
Relative poverty normal activities of their society, defined in relation to the average standard of living. 'Relative' = compared to others around you.
相对贫困：缺乏足够资源以参与社会正常活动的状况，相对于社会平均生活水平而言。“相对”即与周围的人相比。
Ascribed vs achieved status sex, royal title); achieved is gained through personal effort (e.g. qualifications). Think 'A' for ascribed = automatic.
先赋地位与自致地位：先赋是出生时被赋予的（如性别、王室头衔）；自致是通过个人努力获得的（如学历）。记忆：“先赋”即先天赋予。
4. Socialisation and Culture | 社会化与文化
Socialisation: The lifelong process of learning the norms, values and behaviours appropriate to one's society. It makes us human. Divide into primary (early childhood, typically in family) and secondary (later, school, peers, media).
社会化：学习所属社会的规范、价值观和恰当行为的终身过程，它使我们成为社会人。分为初级社会化（童年早期，主要在家庭）和次级社会化（之后，学校、同伴、媒体）。
Agents of socialisation: The individuals, groups and institutions that carry out socialisation, e.g. family, school, peer groups, mass media, religion. Picture them as 'teachers' of society's rules.
社会化的动因：执行社会化的个人、群体与制度，如家庭、学校、同辈群体、大众传媒、宗教。把它们想象成社会规则的“老师”。
Cultural relativism: The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, without judging them by the standards of one's own culture. Avoids ethnocentrism. Memory hook: 'relative' means relating to its own context.
文化相对主义：以其他文化自身的标准来理解它们，而不以自己的文化标准加以评判，以此避免种族中心主义。记忆：“相对”即相对于其自身的情境。
Subculture own distinctive norms, values and lifestyle, e.g. youth subcultures like punks or gamers. 'Sub' = underneath the main culture.
亚文化：在更大文化中拥有自己独特规范、价值观和生活方式的群体，如朋克或游戏玩家等青年亚文化。“亚”意味着处于主流文化之下的分支。
Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture, often leading to bias and prejudice. Think 'ethno' = ethnic group, 'centrism' = putting one's own group at the centre.
种族中心主义：仅依据自己文化的价值观和标准来评判其他文化，常导致偏见与歧视。记忆：“中心主义”即把自己的族群放在中心。
Informal social control: The ways in which everyday life regulates behaviour through unwritten rules, customs and shame, exercised by family, peers and community. No formal punishment — just disapproval or gossip.
非正式社会控制：通过不成文规则、习俗和羞耻感来规范日常行为的方式，由家庭、同伴和社区实施。无正式惩罚——只是不赞同或闲言碎语。
5. Family and Households | 家庭与户
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two generations — parents and their dependent children — living together. Sometimes called the 'cereal packet' family. Think nucleus = core.
核心家庭：由两代人——父母及其未成年子女——组成的共居家庭单元。常被称作“谷物包装盒上的家庭”。记忆：“核心”即中心单元。
Extended family often living nearby or in the same household. Extended = stretched out across generations.
扩展家庭：包括核心家庭之外亲属（如祖父母、叔伯姑姨）的家庭结构，常住在附近或同一户内。“扩展”即跨代伸延。
Reconstituted family: A family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new union, also called a 'blended family' or stepfamily. 'Reconstituted' means rebuilt.
重组家庭：一方或双方带着前次关系的孩子结成新家庭，也称“混合家庭”或“继亲家庭”。“重组”即重新组建。
Lone-parent family: A single parent raising one or more children alone. Can result from divorce, separation, bereavement or choice. Remember: one parent serves all family functions.
单亲家庭：由一位父亲或母亲单独抚养一个或多个孩子的家庭。可能源于离婚、分居、丧偶或自主选择。记忆：一人承担所有家庭功能。
Symmetrical family equal and shared, both in paid work and domestic tasks. Symmetrical = mirror-like balance.
对称家庭：威尔莫特和杨提出的概念，指丈夫和妻子的角色更加平等与共享，在带薪工作和家务上皆如此。“对称”意味着像镜像般的平衡。
Cohabitation: Living together in a sexual relationship without being married. 'Co-' means together, 'habit' = living — simply sharing a home.
同居：未缔结婚姻而以伴侣关系共同生活。“同”即一起，“居”即居住。
Divorce rate: The number of divorces per 1,000 married population per year. A key indicator of changing family patterns. Not just a personal crisis, it's a sociological statistic.
离婚率：每年每千名已婚人口中的离婚数量，是家庭模式变迁的关键指标。它不仅是个人危机，更是一项社会学统计数据。
6. Education | 教育
Hidden curriculum: The informal learning that occurs in school beyond the official timetable, such as punctuality, obedience and conformity to rules. It's the 'unwritten lesson'.
隐性课程：学校中在正式时间表之外发生的非正式学习，例如守时、服从和遵守规则。它是“不成文的课程”。
Cultural capital heir children, giving them an advantage in the education system. Coined by Bourdieu. Think 'capital' = asset you can spend.
文化资本：中产阶级家庭传递给子女的知识、态度、品味和语言技能，使其在教育体系中获得优势。布迪厄提出。记忆：“资本”即为你可以使用的资产。
Labelling in education: Teachers may attach labels to pupils (e.g. 'bright', 'troublemaker') based on stereotypes, which can affect the pupils' academic performance — a self-fulfilling prophecy.
教育中的标签：教师可能基于刻板印象给学生贴上标签（如“聪明”、“捣蛋鬼”），这会影响学生的学业表现，形成自证预言。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. In education, if a pupil is labelled as failing, they may internalise it and indeed fail. Remember: the label becomes reality.
自证预言：一个预测直接或间接导致其自身成真。在教育中，如果学生被贴上失败的标签，可能内化之并真的失败。记忆：标签变成现实。
Setting and streaming: Setting places pupils in different groups for specific subjects by ability; streaming places them in the same group for all or most subjects. 'Set' is subject-specific; 'stream' is sweeping.
分班与分流：分班是按能力将学生在特定学科上分到不同组；分流则是将学生在所有或大多数学科上固定于同一班级。记忆：“班”按科，“流”则贯通。
Marketisation of education: The process of making schools compete for pupils like businesses, introduced through league tables, open enrolment and formula funding. Schools become 'producers', parents 'consumers'.
教育市场化：让学校像企业一样竞争生源的过程，通过排名表、开放招生和公式拨款实现。学校成为“生产者”，家长成为“消费者”。
7. Crime, Deviance and Control | 犯罪、越轨与控制
Deviance egal. For example, talking loudly in a library. Deviance = departure from the normal path.
越轨：违反社会公认规范但不一定违法的行为，如图书馆大声说话。越轨即偏离了常态轨道。
Crime: An act that breaks the formal written law and is punishable by the state. All crimes are deviant, but not all deviance is criminal. Remember: crime involves a legal code.
犯罪：违反正式成文法律并可被国家处罚的行为。所有犯罪都是越轨，但并非所有越轨都是犯罪。记忆：犯罪涉及法典。
Anomie: A state of normlessness where society provides little moral guidance to individuals, a concept developed by Durkheim to explain suicide and social breakdown. Think 'a-norm-ie' — absence of norms.
失范：涂尔干提出的概念，指社会缺乏道德指引的无规范状态，用以解释自杀和社会崩溃。记忆：“失范”即失去规范。
White-collar crime iduals in the course of their occupations, e.g. fraud, embezzlement. Coined by Sutherland. 'White-collar' = office workers wearing white collars.
白领犯罪：中产阶级或专业人士在职业过程中实施的非暴力犯罪，如诈骗、挪用公款。萨瑟兰提出。“白领”即穿白领的办公室职员。
Formal social control d prisons, based on written laws. Formal = official, with uniforms and official sanctions.
正式社会控制：国家及其机构（警察、法院、监狱）依据成文法实施的控制。正式意味着官方，有制服和正式制裁。
Deviancy amplification: The process by which media sensationalism or social reaction leads to an increase in the deviance it originally condemned — the very response makes it worse. Like a snowball rolling downhill.
越轨放大：媒体渲染或社会反应导致原本谴责的越轨行为反而增多——正是这种反应使其恶化。如滚雪球一般。
8. Media and Communication | 媒体与传播
Mass media: Forms of communication designed to reach large audiences simultaneously, including television, radio, newspapers
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