📚 GCSE CCEA Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Reference Guide | GCSE CCEA 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the language of sociology is essential for success in CCEA GCSE Sociology. This guide consolidates the core terms you will encounter across Units 1 and 2, from foundational concepts like socialisation and culture to advanced ideas in stratification, research methods and social control. Each entry is presented in clear, exam-friendly language to help you revise efficiently and build precise, analytical answers.
掌握社会学的专业语言是攻克 CCEA GCSE 社会学的关键。这份指南整合了你在第一和第二单元中会遇到的核心术语，从社会化、文化等基础概念，到社会分层、研究方法和社会控制等进阶观念。每个词条都以清晰、贴近考试的语言呈现，帮助你高效复习，构建精准而有分析力的答案。
1. Key Concepts: Society, Culture and Socialisation | 关键概念：社会、文化与社会化
Society – A society is a structured community of people who share a defined territory and a common culture. It involves institutions, norms, values and social relationships that hold the group together across generations.
社会 – 社会是一个结构化的群体，成员共享特定的领土和共同文化。其中包含制度、规范、价值观以及维系群体代代相传的社会关系。
Culture – Culture refers to the whole way of life of a particular society. It includes language, beliefs, customs, dress, food and all the learned behaviours that are passed on through socialisation. Culture is not biologically inherited; it is learned.
文化 – 文化指某一社会整体的生活方式，包括语言、信仰、习俗、服饰、饮食以及所有通过社会化习得并传承的行为。文化不是生物遗传的，而是后天习得的。
Socialisation – The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values and roles of their society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family during early childhood, while secondary socialisation takes place through schools, peer groups, the media and the workplace.
社会化 – 个体学习自身社会规范、价值观和角色的终身过程。初级社会化发生在儿童早期的家庭中，次级社会化则通过学校、同辈群体、媒体和工作场所进行。
Norms – Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. They guide everyday interactions, such as queuing or saying 'please' and 'thank you'.
规范 – 规范是在某一群体或社会中被视为可接受的不成文行为准则。它们引导日常互动，例如排队或说“请”和“谢谢”。
Values – Values are the deeply held beliefs about what is right, good and desirable. They underpin norms and shape the overall goals of a society, such as the value placed on equality, achievement or respect for authority.
价值观 – 价值观是关于什么是正确、美好和可取的深层信念。它们支撑着规范，并塑造社会的总体目标，例如对平等、成就或尊重权威的重视。
Status – Status is the social position a person holds. Ascribed status is fixed by birth, such as being a daughter or a noble; achieved status is earned through effort, such as becoming a doctor or a team captain.
地位 – 地位是指一个人所占据的社会位置。先赋地位是由出生决定的，例如作为女儿或贵族；自致地位则是通过努力赢得的，例如成为医生或队长。
Role – A role is the set of expectations attached to a particular status. Role conflict occurs when the demands of two or more roles clash, such as the demands of being a student and an employee.
角色 – 角色是附着于特定地位的一系列期望。当两个或多个角色的要求发生冲突时，就会产生角色冲突，例如同时作为学生和雇员的要求。
2. Sociological Perspectives: Functionalism and Marxism | 社会学视角：功能论与马克思主义
Functionalism – A consensus theory that sees society as a system of interconnected parts, each performing a function to maintain stability and social order. Key thinkers include Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. Institutions like the family and education are studied in terms of the positive functions they serve.
功能论 – 一种共识理论，认为社会是一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，每个部分都发挥功能以维持稳定与社会秩序。代表人物包括涂尔干和帕森斯。家庭、教育等制度以其所发挥的积极功能被研究。
Organic analogy – Functionalists compare society to a biological organism: just as the heart and lungs work together to keep the body alive, social institutions work together to keep society healthy.
有机体类比 – 功能论者将社会比作生物有机体：正如心脏与肺协同工作以维持生命，社会制度也共同协作以保持社会健康。
Value consensus – The shared agreement around norms and values that functionalists see as the glue holding society together. It ensures cooperation and a collective conscience.
价值共识 – 规范与价值观上的共同认同，功能论者视其为凝聚社会的粘合剂。它确保了合作与集体良知。
Marxism – A conflict theory developed by Karl Marx that views society as based on class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the ruling capitalist class who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class who sell their labour). Marxists argue that all institutions serve to maintain the power of the ruling class.
马克思主义 – 由马克思发展的一种冲突理论，认为社会基于资产阶级（拥有生产资料的统治阶级）与无产阶级（出卖劳动力的工人阶级）之间的阶级冲突。马克思主义者认为所有制度都服务于维持统治阶级的权力。
Ideological state apparatus – A concept used by Marxist Louis Althusser to describe how institutions like education, religion and the media spread ruling-class ideology and convince the proletariat to accept inequality as normal.
意识形态国家机器 – 马克思主义者阿尔都塞使用的概念，用来描述教育、宗教和媒体等制度如何传播统治阶级意识形态，并使无产阶级将不平等视为正常。
Class consciousness – The awareness among the proletariat of their shared exploitation and their collective interest in overthrowing capitalism. Marx argued that capitalism would eventually be replaced by a classless communist society.
阶级意识 – 无产阶级意识到自身被共同剥削以及推翻资本主义的集体利益。马克思认为资本主义最终会被无阶级的共产主义社会取代。
3. Sociological Perspectives: Feminism and Interactionism | 社会学视角：女性主义与互动论
Feminism – A conflict perspective that focuses on gender inequality and patriarchy. Feminists argue that society is male-dominated and that women's experiences are often overlooked. Variants include liberal, radical and Marxist feminism.
女性主义 – 一种关注性别不平等与父权制的冲突视角。女性主义者认为社会由男性主导，女性的经验常被忽视。变体包括自由派、激进派和马克思主义女性主义。
Patriarchy – A system of society in which men hold the power and women are largely excluded from it. Feminists see patriarchy as operating in the family, the workplace and the political sphere.
父权制 – 一种男性掌握权力而女性在很大程度上被排斥在外的社会系统。女性主义者认为父权制渗透在家庭、职场和政治领域。
Interactionism – A micro-level perspective that focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions and how individuals interpret meaning through symbols and language. Unlike functionalism and Marxism, interactionism does not study large institutions but looks at how social reality is constructed in everyday life.
互动论 – 一种微观层面的视角，关注小范围、面对面的互动，以及个体如何通过符号和语言解释意义。与功能论和马克思主义不同，互动论不研究大型制度，而是考察社会现实如何在日常生活中被建构。
Labelling – A key interactionist concept. When a label is attached to a person or group, it can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, a pupil labelled as 'disruptive' may come to act in that way because teachers treat them accordingly.
标签 – 互动论的关键概念。当一个人或群体被贴上一个标签，它可能成为自我实现的预言。例如，被贴上“捣乱”标签的学生可能因为教师相应的对待而真的变得捣乱。
Self-fulfilling prophecy – A prediction that, once made, causes itself to become true. In education, if a teacher expects a student to fail, their interactions may lead the student to under-perform, thereby confirming the original belief.
自我实现预言 – 一个预言一旦作出，便会导致其自身成真。在教育中，如果教师预期某个学生会失败，他们的互动可能导致该学生表现不佳，进而证实最初的看法。
Impression management – Erving Goffman's idea that individuals try to control the impression others have of them, much like actors on a stage. We present different 'fronts' depending on the audience.
印象管理 – 戈夫曼的观点，认为个体试图控制别人对自己的印象，就像舞台上的演员。我们根据观众不同呈现不同的“前台”。
4. Social Stratification: Class, Status and Power | 社会分层：阶级、地位与权力
Social stratification – The systematic ranking of individuals and groups in a hierarchy of unequal layers. Stratification can be based on class, gender, ethnicity, age or disability and involves unequal access to resources such as wealth, power and prestige.
社会分层 – 个人和群体在不平等层级中的系统化排序。分层可以基于阶级、性别、种族、年龄或残疾，并涉及财富、权力和声望等资源的不平等获取。
Social class – A group of people who share a similar economic position, often measured by occupation, income and wealth. Sociologists distinguish between the upper class, middle class, working class and underclass, though boundaries are debated.
社会阶级 – 共享相似经济地位的一群人，通常以职业、收入和财富来衡量。社会学家区分上层阶级、中产阶级、工人阶级和底层阶级，尽管各阶级的边界存在争议。
Life chances – Max Weber's term referring to the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life. Class, gender and ethnicity all affect life chances in areas such as health, education and employment.
生活机会 – 韦伯使用的术语，指个体改善其生活质量的机会。阶级、性别和种族都会影响健康、教育和就业等方面的生活机会。
Social mobility – The movement of individuals or groups between different social positions. Intergenerational mobility refers to change between generations (for example, a child of a cleaner becoming a lawyer), while intragenerational mobility occurs within a person's own lifetime.
社会流动 – 个人或群体在不同社会位置之间的移动。代际流动指代与代之间的变化（例如清洁工的孩子成为律师），代内流动则发生在个人一生之内。
Poverty line – The minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living. Absolute poverty refers to a lack of basic necessities, while relative poverty describes being poor compared to the average standard in a particular society.
贫困线 – 被认为达到适当生活水平所需的最低收入水平。绝对贫困指缺乏基本必需品，相对贫困则指与特定社会的平均水平相比较为贫困。
Wealth and income – Income is the flow of money received, often from wages or benefits. Wealth refers to the stock of assets owned, such as property, savings and shares. Wealth is typically distributed even more unequally than income.
财富与收入 – 收入是收到的货币流，通常来自工资或福利。财富指拥有的资产存量，如房产、储蓄和股票。财富的分配通常比收入更不平等。
5. Family Diversity and Household Types | 家庭多样性与户的类型
Nuclear family – A family unit consisting of two generations: parents and their dependent children living in the same household. Functionalists such as Parsons saw the nuclear family as the ideal unit for industrial society.
核心家庭 – 由两代人组成的家庭单位：父母及其需要抚养的子女共同居住在一个户内。帕森斯等功能论者视核心家庭为工业社会的理想单位。
Extended family – A family that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, either vertically (three or more generations) or horizontally (aunts, uncles, cousins). Modified extended families maintain close ties and mutual support without necessarily sharing a residence.
扩展家庭 – 包括核心单位以外亲属的家庭，可以是垂直的（三代或以上）或水平的（叔伯姑姨表亲）。改良扩展家庭保持紧密联系和相互支持，但不一定同住。
Reconstituted family – Also called a stepfamily, it is formed when adults remarry or cohabit and bring children from previous relationships into the new household. CCEA expects you to recognise that such families can face complex role negotiations.
重组家庭 – 亦称继亲家庭，当成年人再婚或同居并将以往关系中的孩子带入新户时形成。CCEA 希望你认识到这类家庭可能面临复杂的角色协商。
Lone-parent family – A family in which one parent lives with and cares for the dependent children. The majority of lone-parent families are headed by women, and sociologists link this to factors such as divorce, widowhood and changing social attitudes.
单亲家庭 – 由单亲与需抚养子女共同生活并照料他们的家庭。大多数单亲家庭由女性主导，社会学家将其与离婚、丧偶和变化的社会态度等因素联系起来。
Cohabitation – When an unmarried couple lives together in a long-term sexual relationship. Cohabitation has risen significantly and is now a common step before, or instead of, marriage.
同居 – 未婚伴侣长期以性关系共同居住。同居现象显著增加，如今已成为结婚前或取代婚姻的常见一步。
Symmetrical family – Young and Willmott's term describing a family in which domestic roles are shared more equally between husband and wife. Both partners are likely to be in paid work and contribute to housework and childcare, though feminists argue full symmetry is rare.
对称家庭 – 杨与威尔莫特使用的术语，描述夫妻之间家务角色更平等分担的家庭。双方都可能从事有偿工作并分担家务和育儿，但女性主义者认为完全的对称很少见。
6. Education: Functions, Achievement and Inequality | 教育功能、成就与不平等
Meritocracy – A system in which individuals achieve rewards and status based on their abilities and effort rather than on ascribed characteristics. Functionalists claim education is meritocratic, but Marxists argue that class advantages undermine true meritocracy.
精英统治 – 一种个体基于能力与努力而非先赋特征获得回报与地位的系统。功能论者宣称教育是精英统治的，但马克思主义者认为阶级优势损害了真正的精英统治。
Hidden curriculum – The informal lessons taught in school alongside the formal curriculum: punctuality, obedience, competition and acceptance of hierarchy. Marxists see this as preparing working-class pupils for their future roles in a capitalist workforce.
隐性课程 – 学校在正式课程之外传授的非正式内容：守时、服从、竞争和接受等级。马克思主义者认为这是在为工人阶级学生未来在资本主义劳动力中的角色做准备。
Cultural capital – Pierre Bourdieu's concept referring to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility, such as knowledge, language, tastes and habits. Middle-class children often possess more cultural capital, which gives them an advantage in the education system.
文化资本 – 布迪厄的概念，指促进社会流动的非财务性社会资产，如知识、语言、品味和习惯。中产阶级子女通常拥有更多文化资本，这使他们在教育系统中占据优势。
Material deprivation – A lack of physical resources, such as adequate housing, diet, income and educational materials, which can negatively affect a child's educational achievement. Working-class pupils are more likely to experience material deprivation.
物质剥夺 – 指缺乏物质资源，如适当的住房、饮食、收入和教学材料，这可能对孩子的教育成就产生负面影响。工人阶级学生更可能经历物质剥夺。
Streaming and setting – Streaming places pupils into broad ability groups for all subjects, while setting groups them by ability for specific subjects. Interactionists argue that those placed in lower streams often receive less teacher attention and develop anti-school subcultures.
分轨与分班 – 分轨是将学生按能力分入覆盖所有科目的宽泛组别，而分班是按特定科目能力分组。互动论者认为，被分入低轨的学生往往获得较少的教师关注，并发展出反学校亚文化。
Pupil subculture – A group of pupils who share similar norms, values and behaviours that differ from the mainstream school culture. Pro-school subcultures accept the school's goals, while anti-school subcultures reject them and may disrupt lessons.
学生亚文化 – 一群学生共享与主流学校文化不同的相似规范、价值观和行为。亲学校亚文化接受学校目标，反学校亚文化则拒绝它们并可能扰乱课堂。
7. Crime and Deviance: Definitions and Explanations | 犯罪与越轨：定义与解释
Crime – An act that breaks the formal, written laws of a society. If detected, it can lead to official sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or community service. What counts as a crime varies over time and across cultures.
犯罪 – 违反社会正式成文法的行为。一旦被发现，可能导致罚款、监禁或社区服务等官方制裁。什么算作犯罪因时间和文化而异。
Deviance – Behaviour that violates the norms or expectations of a group or society. Deviance is not always criminal: wearing unconventional clothing may be deviant but not illegal. Sociologists see deviance as socially constructed.
越轨 – 违反某一群体或社会规范或预期的行为。越轨不总是犯罪：穿着非传统服装可能是越轨但并非违法。社会学家认为越轨是社会建构的。
Anomie – Durkheim's concept describing a state of normlessness, where society's norms and values break down, often during periods of rapid social change. Anomie can lead to higher rates of crime and suicide.
失范 – 涂尔干的概念，描述一种失范状态，即社会规范与价值观瓦解，常发生于快速社会变迁时期。失范可能导致犯罪率和自杀率升高。
White-collar crime – Crime committed by people of high social status in the course of their professional lives, such as fraud, embezzlement and tax evasion. These crimes are often less visible and may be punished less severely than street crime.
白领犯罪 – 高社会地位者在职业生涯中犯下的罪行，如欺诈、贪污和逃税。这些犯罪往往较不显眼，量刑可能比街头犯罪轻。
Moral panic – Stanley Cohen's term describing an exaggerated public reaction to a group or behaviour seen as a threat to societal values. Media amplification often fuels moral panics, and the targeted group becomes a 'folk devil'.
道德恐慌 – 斯坦利·科恩的术语，描述公众对被视为威胁社会价值观的群体或行为的过度反应。媒体放大往往助长道德恐慌，被针对的群体成为“民间恶魔”。
Official crime statistics – Figures compiled from police records. Interactionists argue that these are a social construction because they reflect decisions by police and courts, not the actual amount of crime. The 'dark figure of crime' refers to unreported and unrecorded offences.
官方犯罪统计 – 根据警方记录汇编的数据。互动论者认为这是社会建构，因为它们反映的是警察和法院的决定，而非实际犯罪数量。“犯罪黑数”指未报案和未记录的罪行。
8. Social Control: Agencies and Sanctions | 社会控制：机构与制裁
Social control – The methods used by society to ensure conformity to norms and values. It can be formal or informal, and it maintains social order by encouraging acceptable behaviour and punishing deviance.
社会控制 – 社会用来确保遵守规范与价值观的方法。它可以是正式或非正式的，通过鼓励可接受的行为和惩罚越轨来维持社会秩序。
Formal social control – Control based on written rules and laws enforced by official agencies such as the police, courts, prisons and the government. Sanctions include fines, imprisonment and community sentences.
正式社会控制 – 基于书面规则与法律、由警察、法院、监狱和政府等官方机构执行的控制。制裁包括罚款、监禁和社区刑罚。
Informal social control – Control exercised through unwritten norms and social expectations within families, peer groups and communities. Sanctions can be positive (praise, approval) or negative (gossip, exclusion).
非正式社会控制 – 通过家庭、同辈群体和社区中不成文规范和社会期望实施的控制。制裁可以是积极的（表扬、认可）或消极的（闲话、排斥）。
Sanctions – Rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity. Positive sanctions include smiles, prizes and promotions; negative sanctions range from verbal reprimands to imprisonment.
制裁 – 用于执行遵从的奖励或惩罚。积极制裁包括微笑、奖品和晋升；消极制裁从口头训斥到监禁不等。
Agents of socialisation – The individuals, groups and institutions that carry out socialisation. Primary agents include the family; secondary agents include schools, the media, peer groups, religion and the workplace.
社会化机构 – 实施社会化的个人、群体与制度。初级机构包括家庭；次级机构包括学校、媒体、同辈群体、宗教和工作场所。
Peer group – A group of people of similar age and social status who share interests. Peer groups can exert strong informal social control, especially during adolescence, and may influence attitudes to education, drugs and fashion.
同辈群体 – 一群年龄与社会地位相仿并共享兴趣的人。同辈群体能施加强大的非正式社会控制，特别是在青春期，可能影响对教育、毒品和时尚的态度。
9. Research Methods: Key Terminology | 研究方法：关键术语
Validity – The extent to which research findings produce a true, accurate picture of social reality. Qualitative methods are often praised for achieving high validity because they capture depth, emotion and meaning.
效度 – 研究结果在多大程度上真实、准确地描绘了社会现实。质性方法常因能捕捉深度、情感与意义而被称赞具有高效度。
Reliability – The consistency of research findings. If a study is repeated under the same conditions and produces similar results, it is considered reliable. Quantitative methods such as structured questionnaires tend to be more reliable.
信度 – 研究结果的一致性。若一项研究在相同条件下重复进行并得出相似结果，则被认为具有信度。结构化问卷等量化方法往往信度更高。
Representativeness – The degree to which a sample reflects the characteristics of the wider population. Large, carefully selected samples increase the chance of representativeness, allowing sociologists to generalise.
代表性 – 样本在多大程度上反映更广泛人群的特征。经过精心挑选的大样本能提高代表性，使社会学家可以进行推断。
Sampling – The process of selecting a subset of the population to study. Key types include random sampling, stratified sampling, snowball sampling and opportunity sampling. Each has strengths and limitations for representativeness.
抽样 – 选取总体的一个子集进行研究的过程。主要类型包括随机抽样、分层抽样、滚雪球抽样和便利抽样。每种方法在代表性上各有优缺点。
Primary data – Information collected first-hand by the researcher for their specific study, such as through interviews, questionnaires or observations. Primary data is tailored to the research question but can be time-consuming to gather.
一手数据 – 研究者为特定研究亲自收集的信息，如通过访谈、问卷或观察。一手数据紧扣研究问题，但收集过程可能耗时。
Secondary data – Information that already exists and was collected by someone else, such as official statistics, historical documents and previous studies. It is quick to access but may not perfectly fit the new research purpose.
二手数据 – 已存在并由他人收集的信息，如官方统计、历史文献和过往研究。获取快捷，但可能不完全贴合新的研究目的。
Triangulation – The use of two or more research methods in a single study to cross-check findings and improve both validity and reliability. For example, combining questionnaires with in-depth interviews is a common form of methodological pluralism.
三角测量 – 在单一研究中使用两种或以上方法以交叉验证结果、提高效度和信度。例如，结合问卷与深度访谈是一种常见的方法论多元主义。
10. Media, Power and Socialisation | 媒体、权力与社会化
Mass media – The forms of communication that reach large audiences simultaneously, including television, newspapers, radio, social media and the internet. The media act as a powerful agent of secondary socialisation and a source of information, entertainment and propaganda.
大众媒体 – 同时触及大量受众的传播形式，包括电视、报纸、广播、社交媒体和互联网。媒体是强大的次级社会化机构，也是信息、娱乐和宣传的来源。
Media representation – The way the media portray particular groups, events or issues. Stereotyping can simplify and distort reality: for instance, women may be represented as passive or domestic, while ethnic minorities may be linked to crime. CCEA expects you to evaluate the impact of such representations.
媒体再现 – 媒体描绘特定群体、事件或议题的方式。刻板印象可能简化和扭曲现实：例如，女性可能被再现为被动或家庭型的，而少数族裔可能被与犯罪挂钩。CCEA 期望你评估此类再现的影响。
Gatekeeping – The process through which media professionals decide what news reaches the public. Editors and journalists act as gatekeepers, selecting stories that will attract audiences and often reflecting dominant cultural assumptions.
把关 – 媒体从业者决定哪些新闻到达公众的过程。编辑和记者作为把关人，挑选能吸引受众的报道，并常常反映主流文化假设。
Cultural imperialism – The practice of promoting the culture and language of one dominant nation over others, often through media. Western media products exported globally can lead to the erosion of local cultures.
文化帝国主义 – 通过媒体等方式推广某一支配性国家的文化与语言，使其凌驾于其他文化之上。
Published by TutorHao | GCSE 社会学 Revision Series | aleveler.com
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