📚 GCSE Edexcel Biology: Final Revision Checklist | GCSE Edexcel 生物：期末复习提纲
This comprehensive revision checklist covers all the major topics of the GCSE Edexcel Biology specification, designed to help you focus on the essential concepts, key definitions, and common exam question types. Use it alongside your class notes to identify areas needing more practice and to build confidence before the final exam.
这份全面复习提纲涵盖了 GCSE Edexcel 生物课程的所有主要主题，旨在帮助你聚焦核心概念、关键定义和常见题型。配合课堂笔记使用，可以找出需要加强的薄弱环节，在期末考试前建立信心。
1. Key Concepts in Biology | 生物学关键概念
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and have free-floating DNA.
细胞是所有生物体的基本结构单位。真核细胞具有细胞核和膜包被的细胞器，而原核细胞没有细胞核，DNA游离在细胞质中。
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. Each enzyme has an active site with a specific shape that fits its substrate, and the lock-and-key model explains this specificity.
酶是生物催化剂，能加速化学反应而本身不被消耗。每种酶都有一个形状特异的活性位点，与其底物匹配，锁钥模型解释了这种特异性。
Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH. Extremes can denature the enzyme, causing the active site to change shape and the substrate can no longer bind.
酶的活性受温度和 pH 值影响。极端条件会使酶变性，活性位点形状改变，底物无法结合。
fication, actual size, and image size. Remember: Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size.
显微镜计算需掌握放大倍数、实际尺寸和图像尺寸的关系。记住：放大倍数 = 图像尺寸 ÷ 实际尺寸。
2. Cells and Control | 细胞与控制
Mitosis is cell division for growth and repair, producing two genetically identical daughter cells. The stages in order are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis.
有丝分裂是用于生长和修复的细胞分裂，产生两个遗传上相同的子细胞。顺序为前期、中期、后期和末期，然后进行胞质分裂。
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can develop into many different cell types. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, while adult stem cells are multipotent and are used in medicine to treat conditions like leukaemia.
干细胞是未分化的细胞，能发育成多种不同的细胞类型。胚胎干细胞为多能干细胞，成体干细胞为专能干细胞，在医学上用于治疗白血病等疾病。
ay neurone → motor neurone → effector, bypassing the conscious brain for rapid protection.
神经系统通过电冲动对刺激作出反应。反射弧路径为：感受器 → 感觉神经元 → 中间神经元 → 运动神经元 → 效应器，绕开大脑意识以实现快速保护。
3. Genetics | 遗传学
DNA is a polymer made of nucleotides, each consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a base (A, T, C, G). The double helix structure is held together by complementary base pairing: A with T, C with G.
DNA 是由核苷酸组成的聚合物，每个核苷酸包括一个糖、一个磷酸基团和一个碱基（A、T、C、G）。双螺旋结构通过互补碱基配对维持：A 与 T 配对，C 与 G 配对。
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. During protein synthesis, transcription produces mRNA in the nucleus, then translation occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm, using tRNA to assemble amino acids.
基因是编码特定蛋白质的一段 DNA。蛋白质合成时，先在细胞核内转录生成 mRNA，随后在细胞质的核糖体上进行翻译，利用 tRNA 将氨基酸组装起来。
Alleles are different versions of a gene. Monohybrid inheritance can be predicted using Punnett squares. Homozygous individuals have two identical alleles, heterozygous have two different alleles.
等位基因是同一基因的不同形式。单基因遗传可用旁氏表进行预测。纯合子个体具有两个相同的等位基因，杂合子则有两个不同的等位基因。
Sex determination: human females have XX chromosomes, males have XY. The father's sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
性别决定：人类女性性染色体为 XX，男性为 XY。父亲的精子决定了后代的性别。
4. Natural Selection and Genetic Modification | 自然选择与基因改造
Darwin's theory of natural selection states that organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these traits to their offspring. This leads to gradual evolution over many generations.
达尔文的自然选择学说指出，具有有利性状的生物更易生存和繁殖，并将这些性状传给后代。经过许多世代逐渐导致进化。
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria evolve when a random mutation provides resistance; antibiotics kill non-resistant bacteria, so resistant ones survive and multiply, passing the resistance gene through horizontal gene transfer or reproduction.
随机突变使细菌产生抗药性；抗生素杀死非耐药菌，耐药菌存活并大量繁殖，通过水平基因转移或繁殖把耐药基因传递下去。
Selective breeding involves choosing parent organisms with desired characteristics to produce offspring that retain these traits. It has been used to increase crop yields and produce pedigree dogs, but reduces genetic diversity.
选择育种是挑选具有理想性状的亲本进行繁殖，使后代保持这些特性。已经用于提高作物产量和培育纯种犬，但会降低遗传多样性。
Genetic engineering transfers genes between species. Insulin is produced by inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria, which then multiply and produce the hormone. GM crops may be resistant to pests or herbicides.
基因工程实现了跨物种的基因转移。将人胰岛素基因植入细菌，细菌繁殖后产生胰岛素。转基因作物可能具有抗虫或抗除草剂特性。
5. Health, Disease and Medicines | 健康、疾病与药物
Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being. Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists) and can be spread by direct contact, air, water, or vectors.
健康是身体、心理和社会适应的完好状态。传染病由病原体（细菌、病毒、真菌、原生生物）引起，可通过直接接触、空气、水或媒介传播。
The immune system defends against pathogens. White blood cells engulf microbes, produce antibodies, and release antitoxins. Memory lymphocytes provide long-term immunity after vaccination.
免疫系统防御病原体。白细胞吞噬微生物、产生抗体并释放抗毒素。接种疫苗后，记忆淋巴细胞能提供长期免疫。
Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells and target specific antigens. They are used in pregnancy tests, cancer treatment targeting tumour markers, and diagnostic tests.
单克隆抗体由单一细胞克隆产生，能针对特定抗原。用于验孕试纸、靶向肿瘤标志物的癌症治疗以及诊断检测。
Antibiotics treat bacterial infections but are ineffective against viruses. New medicines are tested in preclinical trials (cells, animals) and clinical trials, often using double-blind placebo-controlled designs for valid results.
抗生素用于治疗细菌感染，但对病毒无效。新药研发经过临床前试验（细胞、动物）和临床试验，常采用双盲安慰剂对照设计以保证结果有效性。
6. Plant Structures and Their Functions | 植物结构与功能
tion: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
光合作用在叶绿体中进行，利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。文字方程式：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气，需要光能和叶绿素。
Limiting factors of photosynthesis include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Their effects can be measured by the rate of oxygen production or using hydrogencarbonate indicator.
光合作用的限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。可通过测量氧气释放速率或使用碳酸氢盐指示剂来检测其影响。
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plant leaves, pulling water up through the xylem. The transpiration stream is driven by cohesion and tension, moving minerals dissolved in water from roots to leaves.
蒸腾作用是植物叶片水分蒸发的过程，通过木质部向上拉动水分。蒸腾流依靠内聚力和张力驱动，将溶解在水中的矿质元素由根运送到叶片。
Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata, regulating gas exchange and water loss. When guard cells are turgid, stomata open; when flaccid, they close.
保卫细胞控制气孔的开闭，调节气体交换和水分流失。保卫细胞膨压高时气孔打开，萎蔫时关闭。
7. Animal Coordination, Control and Homeostasis | 动物协调、控制与稳态
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment to maintain stable conditions. Negative feedback loops reverse changes to keep conditions like body temperature and blood glucose within narrow limits.
稳态是内部环境的调节，以维持稳定条件。负反馈回路逆转变化，使体温和血糖等条件保持在狭窄范围内。
Thermoregulation involves the skin responding to temperature changes: vasodilation and sweating occur when hot; vasoconstriction and shivering occur when cold. The hypothalamus acts as the body`s thermostat.
体温调节依靠皮肤对温度变化的反应：炎热时血管舒张并出汗；寒冷时血管收缩并颤抖。下丘脑相当于身体的恒温器。
Blood glucose control: insulin from the pancreas lowers glucose by converting it to glycogen in the liver; glucagon raises glucose by converting glycogen back to glucose. In diabetes, this regulation fails.
血糖控制：胰腺分泌胰岛素，将葡萄糖在肝脏中转化为糖原从而降低血糖；胰高血糖素则将糖原转化为葡萄糖以升高血糖。糖尿病患者的这种调控失效。
Hormones are chemical messengers carried in the blood. Adrenaline triggers the 'fight or flight' response, increasing heart rate and breathing rate, and diverting blood to muscles. Thyroxine regulates metabolism via negative feedback involving the pituitary gland.
激素是通过血液传递的化学信使。肾上腺素引发 '战斗或逃跑' 反应，提高心率和呼吸频率，并将血液转向肌肉。甲状腺素通过涉及垂体的负反馈调节代谢。
8. Exchange and Transport in Animals | 动物的交换与运输
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a double pump: the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circuit), the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body (systemic circuit).
循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成。心脏是双泵：右侧泵出缺氧血至肺部（肺循环），左侧泵出富氧血至全身（体循环）。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and have thick muscular walls. Veins return blood to the heart and have valves to prevent backflow. Capillaries are one-cell thick for efficient exchange of substances.
动脉将血液带离心脏，血压高，管壁肌层厚。静脉把血液送回心脏，具有防止回流的瓣膜。毛细血管只有单层细胞厚度，便于物质高效交换。
Red blood cells are biconcave, contain haemoglobin to bind oxygen, and lack a nucleus to maximise surface area. White blood cells defend against disease, and platelets help clot blood.
红细胞呈双凹圆盘状，含有血红蛋白以结合氧气，无细胞核以增大表面积。白细胞防御疾病，血小板参与血液凝固。
Gas exchange in the alveoli: oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood, carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Alveoli are adapted by having large surface area, thin walls, and good blood supply.
肺泡内的气体交换：氧气从肺泡扩散入血液，二氧化碳从血液扩散入肺泡。肺泡的适应性体现在表面积大、壁薄、血液供应充足。
9. Ecosystems and Material Cycles | 生态系统与物质循环
An ecosystem includes all the organisms (community) and the abiotic environment in an area. Food chains show feeding relationships, with energy transferred up each trophic level, but only about 10% is passed on; the rest is lost as heat or through respiration and excretion.
生态系统包括一个区域内的所有生物（群落）和非生物环境。食物链展示了捕食关系，能量沿营养级传递，但只有约10% 的能量转移到下一级，其余以热、呼吸、排泄等形式损耗。
The carbon cycle shows how carbon is recycled between the atmosphere, organisms, and the environment. Key processes include photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion of fossil fuels. Deforestation disrupts this balance.
碳循环展示了碳在大气、生物和环境之间的循环。关键过程包括光合作用、呼吸作用、分解作用以及化石燃料的燃烧。森林砍伐破坏了这个平衡。
The water cycle involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation. Water is vital as a solvent, for transport, and for temperature regulation.
水循环包括蒸发、蒸腾、冷凝和降水。水作为溶剂、运输介质和温度调节剂至关重要。
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms. Pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change reduce biodiversity. Conservation methods include breeding programmes, protected habitats, and reforestation.
生物多样性指生物的多样性。污染、栖息地破坏和气候变化降低了生物多样性。保育方法包括繁殖计划、保护栖息地和重新造林。
Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead matter, releasing nutrients back into the soil. This makes the nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle possible.
细菌和真菌等分解者分解死去的生物，将养分释放回土壤中。这使得氮循环和碳循环得以实现。
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