📚 GCSE WJEC Psychology: Quick Reference Formula & Theorems Handbook | GCSE WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your ultimate quick reference for GCSE WJEC Psychology. This handbook distils the core theoretical models, empirical laws, and essential statistical 'formulas' into concise, exam-ready statements. Use it to strengthen your understanding of key topics, from memory and social influence to research methods and dreaming.
欢迎使用 GCSE WJEC 心理学终极速查手册。本手册将核心理论模型、实证定律和关键的统计“公式”浓缩为简洁的应考陈述，帮助你巩固从记忆、社会影响到研究方法和睡眠等关键主题的理解。
1. Memory Models: The Multi-Store Model Theorem | 记忆模型：多存储模型定理
The Atkinson and Shiffrin model acts as a foundational theorem for memory. Information flows through three distinct stores, each defined by capacity and duration. The transfer between stores relies on attention and rehearsal, forming a linear 'formula' for memory processing.
阿特金森和谢夫林模型是记忆的基础定理。信息流经三个不同的存储库，每个库由容量和持续时间定义。存储库之间的转移依赖于注意和复述，形成了记忆加工的线性“公式”。
| Store (English) | 存储库 (中文) | Capacity | Duration | Key Process |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory memory | 感觉记忆 | Very large | < 1 second | Attention → STM |
| Short-term memory (STM) | 短时记忆 | 7±2 items | 15-30 seconds | Maintenance rehearsal → LTM |
| Long-term memory (LTM) | 长时记忆 | Unlimited | Potentially permanent | Encoding, retrieval |
2. Forgetting and Reconstructive Memory Theorem | 遗忘与重建记忆定理
Bartlett' memory as a passive replay. Instead, remembering is an active process where we use schemas – mental frameworks – tions and additions reflect the formula: Recall = Actual event + Schema-driven inferences.
巴特利特的重建记忆定理挑战了将记忆视为被动回放的观点。相反，记忆是一个主动的过程，我们利用图式（心理框架）来重建过去的事件。遗漏、扭曲和添加反映了一个公式：回忆 = 实际事件 + 图式驱动的推断。
Additionally, Ebbinghaus' etting is fastest in the first hour and levels off, following the principle: Retention ≈ e–t/S, where t is time and S is the relative strength of the memory trace.
此外，艾宾浩斯的遗忘曲线定理突显了记忆的指数衰退。遗忘速率在第一个小时内最快，随后趋于平缓，遵循如下原理：保持量 ≈ e⁻ᵗ/ˢ，其中 t 为时间，S 为记忆痕迹的相对强度。
3. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theorem | 皮亚杰认知发展定理
Piaget proposed that children' milation + Accommodation, leading to equilibration. New experiences are either fitted into existing schemas (assimilation) or schemas change to fit reality (accommodation).
皮亚杰提出，儿童的智力通过一系列固定的阶段发展。基本的学习定理为：适应 = 同化 + 顺应，由此达到平衡。新的经验要么被纳入现有图式（同化），要么图式发生改变以适应现实（顺应）。
| Stage (English) | 阶段 (中文) | Approx. Age | Key Theorem / Achievement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 感觉运动阶段 | 0-2 years | Object permanence theorem: objects exist when out of sight |
| Pre-operational | 前运算阶段 | 2-7 years | Egocentrism, conservation not yet achieved |
| Concrete operational | 具体运算阶段 | 7-11 years | Conservation theorem: quantity remains invariant despite changes in shape |
| Formal operational | 形式运算阶段 | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning, hypothetico-deductive logic |
4. Conformity and Obedience Theorems | 从众与服从定理
Asch's conformity theorem states that individuals often yield to majority influence even when the majority is clearly wrong. The extent of conformity can be expressed as a function of group size, unanimity and task difficulty. A single dissenter dramatically reduces conformity – a 'social support' modifier in the formula.
阿希的从众定理指出，个体即使面对明显错误的多数意见，也常常屈从于群体影响。从众程度可以表示为群体规模、一致性和任务难度的函数。仅仅一个异议者就能显著降低从众率——这就是“社会支持”修正因子。
Milgram's obedience theorem reveals that ordinary people will obey destructive orders under certain situational pressures. The obedience rate depends on proximity, authority legitimacy and the presence of disobedient peers. The core finding: Obedience ∝ Experimenter proximity / Victim immediacy.
米尔格拉姆的服从定理揭示，普通人在特定情境压力下会服从破坏性命令。服从率取决于接近性、权威合法性和是否存在不顺从的同伴。核心发现：服从程度 ∝ 实验者接近度 / 受害者直接性。
5. Classical and Operant Conditioning Theorems | 经典条件反射与操作性条件反射定理
Pavlov' is theorem explains how a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association. Extinction, spontaneous recovery and generalisation are its corollaries.
巴甫洛夫的经典条件反射定理可以写作：非条件刺激 → 非条件反应；中性刺激 + 非条件刺激 → 非条件反应；经过反复配对后，条件刺激 → 条件反应。该定理解释了中性刺激如何通过联系获得引发反应的能力，消退、自然恢复和泛化是其推论。
Skinner' t/punishment). Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one. Punishment reduces the likelihood of a behaviour.
斯金纳的操作性条件反射定理主张行为由结果塑造。核心等式为：行为概率 = f(强化/惩罚)。正强化增加愉快刺激；负强化移除不愉快刺激。惩罚则降低行为发生的可能性。
6. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Theorem | 社会学习理论（班杜拉）定理
Bandura' rning is: Attention → Retention → Motor reproduction → Motivation. Vicarious reinforcement – seeing others rewarded – increases the motivation to imitate the modelled behaviour.
班杜拉的社会学习定理为传统学习理论增添了认知维度。观察学习的公式为：注意 → 保持 → 动作再现 → 动机。替代强化——看到他人被奖励——会增加模仿示范行为的动机。
The Bobo doll experiments confirmed that children imitate aggressive models, especially when the model is same-sex and observed to be rewarded. Self-efficacy – one's belief in their ability to succeed – acts as a moderating variable in the theorem.
波波玩偶实验证实儿童会模仿攻击性榜样，尤其是当榜样为同性且被观察到受奖励时。自我效能感——个体对自己能否成功的信念——在该定理中起到了调节变量的作用。
7. Dream Theories: Freudian and Activation-Synthesis | 梦的理论：弗洛伊德理论及激活-整合定理
Freud's wish fulfilment theorem posits that dreams are the 'royal road to the unconscious'. The manifest content (what we remember) is a disguised version of the latent content (hidden wishes). Dreamwork mechanisms – condensation, displacement, symbolisation – transform the latent content into the manifest content.
弗洛伊德的愿望满足定理假定梦是“通往无意识的捷径”。显性内容（我们所记得的）是隐性内容（隐藏的愿望）经过伪装后的版本。梦的运作机制——凝缩、移置、象征——将隐性内容转化为显性内容。
Hobson and McCarley's activation-synthesis theorem provides a neurobiological alternative. During REM sleep, random neural firing in the brainstem (activation) is interpreted by the cortex into a coherent story (synthesis). Thus, dreams are essentially the brain's attempt to make sense of random internal signals.
霍布森和麦卡利的激活-整合定理提供了神经生物学解释。在快速眼动睡眠期间，脑干的随机神经放电（激活）被大脑皮层解释为一个连贯的故事（整合）。因此，梦本质上是大脑试图理解内部随机信号的产物。
8. Research Methods: Statistical Formulas | 研究方法：统计公式
GCSE Psychology requires fluency in basic descriptive statistics. These formulas allow you to summarise data effectively. Remember the meaning of each measure and how to calculate it.
GCSE 心理学要求熟练掌握基本的描述统计量。这些公式能帮助你有效总结数据。记住每个度量的含义及其计算方法。
- Mean (平均数): X̄ = (∑x)/n, where ∑x is the sum of all scores and n is the number of scores.
- 平均数: X̄ = (∑x)/n，其中 ∑x 是所有分数之和，n 是分数个数。
- Median (中位数): the middle value when scores are arranged in order. For an even number of scores, average the two middle values.
- 中位数: 将分数按顺序排列后位于中间的值。若分数个数为偶数，则取中间两个值的平均数。
- Mode (众数): the most frequently occurring score in a data set.
- 众数: 数据集中出现频次最高的分数。
- Range (极差): R = Xmax – Xmin. This measures the spread of the data.
- 极差: R = Xₘₐₓ – Xₘᵢₙ。这衡量数据的分散程度。
9. Psychological Problems: Models of Abnormality | 心理问题：异常行为模型
n structure abnormalities. It follows a medical formula: Diagnosis → Classification → Biological treatment (e.g., medication).
生物模型定理指出，心理障碍是由遗传、神经递质失衡和脑结构异常等生理因素引起的。它遵循一个医学公式：诊断 → 分类 → 生物学治疗（如药物治疗）。
The cognitive model theorem focuses on faulty thinking patterns. The ABC model (Ellis) articulates that an Activating event (A) triggers irrational Beliefs (B), which then lead to emotional and behavioural Consequences (C). Treatment aims to restructure harmful cognitions.
认知模型定理聚焦于错误的思维模式。埃利斯的 ABC 模型阐明，一个激发事件 (A) 触发非理性信念 (B)，进而导致情绪和行为后果 (C)。治疗旨在重构有害的认知。
10. Brain and Neuropsychology: Core Principles | 大脑与神经心理学：核心原理
The principle of lateralisation of function is a key theorem: each hemisphere specialises in certain tasks. For most right-handed people, language is predominantly processed in the left hemisphere, while spatial and holistic processing leans to the right hemisphere.
功能偏侧化原理是一个关键定理：每个半球专长于某些任务。对大多数右撇子而言，语言主要在左半球加工，而空间和整体加工则倾向于右半球。
apse → they bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron. This process underpins all behaviour, cognition and emotion.
神经元通信遵循电化学定理：动作电位沿轴突传导 → 神经递质释放到突触间隙 → 它们与突触后神经元上的受体位点结合。这一过程是所有行为、认知和情绪的基础。
| Brain Region (English) | 脑区 (中文) | Theorem of Function |
|---|---|---|
| Frontal lobe | 额叶 | Decision-making, personality, motor control |
| Temporal lobe | 颞叶 | Auditory processing, memory |
| Occipital lobe | 枕叶 | Visual processing |
| Parietal lobe | 顶叶 | Sensory integration, spatial awareness |
| Cerebellum | 小脑 | Coordination, balance, procedural memory |
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