GCSE WJEC Psychology: Core Knowledge Summary | GCSE WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理

📚 GCSE WJEC Psychology: Core Knowledge Summary | GCSE WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理

Welcome to your complete revision overview for GCSE WJEC Psychology. This guide distils every major topic into clear, bilingual summaries, covering research methods, cognitive processes, developmental and social psychology, neuropsychology, and mental health. All sections follow the official specification and highlight the studies, concepts, and evaluations you must know for the exam.

欢迎阅读 GCSE WJEC 心理学完整复习梳理。本指南将每个核心主题浓缩为清晰的中英双语概要，涵盖研究方法、认知过程、发展与社会心理学、神经心理学及心理健康。所有小节严格遵循官方大纲，突出考试必须掌握的研究、概念与评价。

1. Research Methods and Ethics | 研究方法与伦理

An experiment investigates cause and effect by manipulating an independent variable (IV) and measuring a dependent variable (DV), whilst controlling extraneous variables. A clear hypothesis must be operationalised so that variables are measurable.

实验通过操纵自变量 (IV) 并测量因变量 (DV) 来探究因果关系，同时控制额外变量。研究假设必须清晰可操作，使变量可以被测量。

Independent groups design uses different participants in each condition, which avoids order effects but may be affected by participant variables. Repeated measures uses the same participants, which controls individual differences but creates order effects. A matched pairs design reduces both problems by pairing similar participants.

独立组设计在每个条件下使用不同被试，避免顺序效应但可能受被试变量影响。重复测量使用相同被试，控制了个体差异但会产生顺序效应。配对组设计通过将相似被试配对，减少了这两种问题。

Sampling techniques include random, opportunity, volunteer, and stratified sampling. Random sampling gives each member of the target population an equal chance, reducing bias. Opportunity sampling is quick but unrepresentative. Stratified sampling guarantees subgroups are proportionally represented.

取样方法包括随机取样、机会取样、志愿者取样和分层取样。随机取样让目标人群中每个个体有同等被选中的机会，减少偏差。机会取样快捷但不具备代表性。分层取样确保各子群按比例被代表。

BPS ethical guidelines require informed consent, right to withdraw, deception avoidance, debriefing, confidentiality, and protection from harm. Researchers must balance the value of the study against any potential risk.

英国心理学会 (BPS) 伦理准则要求知情同意、退出权利、避免欺骗、事后说明、保密以及避免伤害。研究者必须权衡研究价值与任何潜在风险。

2. Multi-store Model of Memory | 记忆的多存储模型

The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes memory as three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows sequentially, with rehearsal transferring items from STM to LTM.

多存储模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) 将记忆描述为三个独立仓库：感觉记忆、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息按顺序流动，通过复述将项目从 STM 转入 LTM。

conds (iconic store). STM has a limited capacity of 7±2 chunks and a duration of around 18– earsal. LTM has unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime, with encoding mainly semantic.

感觉记忆容量很大，保持时间约 0.5 秒（图像记忆）。STM 容量有限，为 7±2 个组块，无复述时仅保持约 18–30 秒。LTM 容量无限，可保持终生，编码主要是语义的。

Supporting evidence includes the primacy and recency effects in serial position curves (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966). However, the model oversimplifies STM and LTM as unitary stores; the working memory model and case studies (e.g., KF) show that STM has multiple components.

支持证据包括序列位置曲线中的首因与近因效应 (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966)。但该模型过分简化了 STM 与 LTM，把它们看作单个仓库；工作记忆模型及个案研究（如 KF）表明 STM 包含多个成分。

3. Forgetting and Accuracy of Memory | 遗忘与记忆准确性

Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because of competition between memories. Proactive interference is when old learning disrupts new recall; retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts old recall. Underwood (1957) demonstrated proactive interference using word lists.

干扰理论认为遗忘因记忆间竞争而生。前摄干扰指旧的学习干扰新信息的回忆；倒摄干扰则是新学习干扰旧信息的回忆。Underwood (1957) 使用词表任务证实了前摄干扰。

Retrieval failure occurs when the context at recall differs from the context at encoding. Godden and Baddeley (1975) found that divers who learned words underwater recalled them better underwater. This shows the importance of context-dependent cues.

提取失败发生在回忆时的情境与编码时的情境不一致时。Godden 和 Baddeley (1975) 发现潜水员在水下学习词汇，在水下回忆效果更好，表明情境依赖线索的重要性。

Eyewitness testimony can be distorted by leading questions and post-event information. Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that the verb used in a question about a car crash (e.g., 'smashed' vs 'hit') affected participants' estimates of speed.

目击者证词可能被引导性提问和事后信息扭曲。Loftus 和 Palmer (1974) 发现，询问撞车时使用的动词（如“撞碎”与“碰”）会影响被试对车速的估计。

4. Early Attachment | 早期依恋

Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver, promoting proximity. Reciprocity describes mutual, turn-taking interactions, while interactional synchrony involves simultaneous imitation of movements and emotions (Meltzoff & Moore, 1977).

依恋是婴儿与照料者之间强烈的情感纽带，促使彼此亲近。互惠指相互的轮流式互动，而互动同步则涉及动作与情绪的同时模仿 (Meltzoff & Moore, 1977)。

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) identified four stages of attachment: asocial stage (0–6 weeks), indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks–7 months), specific attachment (7–9 months), and multiple attachments (10+ months). By the specific stage, infants display stranger and separation anxiety.

Schaffer 和 Emerson (1964) 确认了依恋的四个阶段：非社交阶段 (0–6 周)、无差别依恋 (6 周–7 个月)、特定依恋 (7–9 个月) 和多重依恋 (10 个月以上)。在特定依恋阶段，婴儿会表现出陌生人焦虑和分离焦虑。

Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970) assessed attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C). Secure infants explored freely and were easily comforted; avoidant infants ignored the caregiver; resistant infants showed clinginess and anger.

Ainsworth 的陌生情境法 (1970) 评估了依恋类型：安全型 (B)、不安全回避型 (A) 与不安全抗拒型 (C)。安全型婴儿自由探索且易被安抚；回避型婴儿忽视照料者；抗拒型婴儿既依赖又愤怒。

Cultural variations exist: van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) found that secure attachment was most common in all cultures studied, but avoidant types were higher in Germany and resistant types higher in Japan.

存在文化变异：van IJzendoorn 与 Kroonenberg (1988) 发现安全型在所有研究文化中最普遍，但德国样本中回避型比例更高，日本样本中抗拒型更高。

5. Cognitive Development (Piaget) | 认知发展（皮亚杰理论）

Piaget proposed that children's thinking develops through four invariant stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years), preoperational (2–7), concrete operational (7–11), and formal operational (11+). Each stage builds on schemas—mental frameworks that organise knowledge.

皮亚杰提出儿童思维发展经历四个不变的阶段：感知运动阶段 (0–2 岁)、前运算阶段 (2–7)、具体运算阶段 (7–11) 和形式运算阶段 (11+)。每一阶段建立在图式——组织知识的心理框架——之上。

Assimilation involves fitting new information into existing schemas, while accommodation refers to modifying schemas when new information cannot be assimilated. Equilibration is the drive for balance between these processes.

同化指将新信息纳入已有图式；顺应则是在新信息无法被同化时修改图式。平衡化是推动二者间平衡的动力。

In the preoperational stage, children lack conservation—the understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. Piaget's liquid conservation task demonstrated this. Concrete operational children acquire class inclusion and reversibility.

在前运算阶段，儿童缺乏守恒——即物体量不随外观改变而变化的理解。皮亚杰的液体守恒任务证实了这一点。具体运算阶段的儿童获得了类包含和可逆性。

Critics note that Piaget underestimated younger children's abilities; Hughes' policeman doll study showed that children as young as 3.5 could take another's perspective (decentring), challenging Piaget's egocentrism claim.

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批评者指出皮亚杰低估了低龄儿童的能力；Hughes 的警察玩偶研究显示 3.5 岁儿童即能采取他人视角 (去自我中心)，挑战了皮亚杰的自我中心论。

6. Perception: Theories and Illusions | 感知：理论与错觉

Gibson's direct theory argues that perception is innate and relies on bottom-up processing from the optic array, using cues like texture gradient and motion parallax. There is no need for prior knowledge.

Gibson 的直接理论主张感知是先天的，依赖于来自光阵列的自下而上加工，利用纹理梯度、运动视差等线索，不需先前知识。

Gregory's constructivist theory suggests perception is a top-down process where the brain constructs hypotheses based on past experience and storage. Visual illusions, such as the Muller-Lyer illusion, occur because of misapplied size constancy scaling.

Gregory 的建构主义理论认为感知是自上而下过程，大脑基于过去经验和存储提出假设。视觉错觉，如缪勒-莱尔错觉，是因错误应用了大小恒常性缩放而产生的。

Size constancy allows us to perceive objects as the same size despite changes in retinal image size. In the Ponzo illusion, converging lines create a distance cue that overrides constancy, making the upper line appear longer.

大小恒常性使我们将物体感知为同样大小，尽管视网膜像不同。在 Ponzo 错觉中，会聚线产生距离线索，覆盖了恒常性，使上方线段显得更长。

Culture affects perception: Hudson (1960) found that South African Bantu tribesmen with limited exposure to 2D images were less susceptible to the Muller-Lyer illusion and more likely to perceive a 2D picture as flat, supporting the role of experience.

文化影响感知：Hudson (1960) 发现南非班图族人对二维图片接触有限，较少受缪勒-莱尔错觉影响，且更可能将二维图片感知为平面，这支持了经验的作用。

7. Social Influence: Obedience and Conformity | 社会影响：服从与从众

Agency theory (Milgram, 1974) explains obedience as a shift to an agentic state where individuals see themselves as agents of an authority, reducing personal responsibility. In his famous 1963 study, 65% of participants delivered maximum 450V shocks when ordered by an experimenter.

代理理论 (Milgram, 1974) 将服从解释为转入代理状态，个体将自己视为权威的代理人，降低个人责任感。在其著名的 1963 年实验中，65% 的被试在实验者命令下施加了最高 450V 电击。

Situational factors affecting obedience include proximity of the authority, legitimacy of the setting (prestigious university), and uniform. In variation studies, obedience dropped when the experimenter gave orders by phone or when an ordinary member of the public gave orders.

影响服从的情境因素包括权威的接近度、环境的合法性（名校场合）和制服。在变式研究中，当实验者通过电话下令或由普通公众下令时，服从率下降。

Asch (1951) demonstrated normative social influence with a line judgement task. About 75% of participants conformed at least once, giving an obviously incorrect answer to match the majority. Conformity increased with larger group size up to three confederates, but a dissenter reduced conformity.

Asch (1951) 通过线段判断任务证明了规范社会影响。约 75% 的被试至少从众一次，给出明显错误的答案以匹配多数人。从众随群体人数增至三名同谋者而上升，但出现异议者可降低从众。

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) showed how social roles and deindividuation can lead to extreme behaviour. Guards became abusive, prisoners submissive, and the study had to be stopped after six days, raising serious ethical concerns.

Zimbardo 的斯坦福监狱实验 (1971) 展示了社会角色和去个体化如何导致极端行为。看守变得虐待，囚犯变得顺从，研究不得不在六天后中断，引发了严重的伦理问题。

8. Prosocial Behaviour and Bystander Intervention | 亲社会行为与旁观者干预

Prosocial behaviour is any act that benefits others. Latane and Darley (1968) proposed a decision model for bystander intervention: noticing the situation, interpreting it as an emergency, accepting personal responsibility, knowing how to help, and deciding to help.

亲社会行为指任何有益于他人的行为。Latane 与 Darley (1968) 提出了旁观者干预的决策模型：注意到情境、将其解释为紧急事件、接受个人责任、知道如何帮助、决定提供帮助。

Diffusion of responsibility explains the bystander effect: as the number of bystanders increases, each individual feels less personal responsibility. Latane and Darley's smoke-filled room study showed that 75% of lone participants reported smoke, compared to only 10% when in a group of three.

责任扩散解释了旁观者效应：随着旁观者数量增加，个人感受到的责任感降低。Latane 和 Darley 的充满烟雾房间研究显示，单独被试 75% 报告了烟雾，而三人组中仅有 10% 报告。

Piliavin et al. (1969) conducted a field experiment on a New York subway, finding that a 'victim' using a cane was helped more often than one appearing drunk. The cost–reward model suggests that people weigh the costs and benefits of helping before acting.

Piliavin 等人 (1969) 在纽约地铁进行现场实验，发现使用拐杖的“受害者”比似乎喝醉的更常获得帮助。代价–回报模型认为，人们在行动前会权衡帮助的代价与回报。

9. Brain and Neuropsychology | 脑与神经心理学

A neuron comprises a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Electrical impulses travel down the axon to terminal buttons, where neurotransmitters are released into the synapse. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine cross the gap and bind to receptor sites on the next neuron.

神经元由胞体、树突和轴突构成。电冲动沿轴突传至终扣，在此释放神经递质进入突触。5-羟色胺、多巴胺等神经递质跨越间隙，与下一神经元的受体位点结合。

Broca's area, in the left frontal lobe, is critical for speech production. Wernicke's area, in the left temporal lobe, is essential for language comprehension. Damage to Broca's area results in non-fluent aphasia; damage to Wernicke's area causes fluent but meaningless speech.

布罗卡区位于左额叶，对言语产生至关重要。韦尼克区位于左颞叶，对语言理解必不可少。布罗卡区受损导致非流利性失语症；韦尼克区受损则产生流利但无意义的言语。

Brain scanning techniques include fMRI, which measures blood flow to detect active brain regions, and PET, which uses radioactive glucose. Research using these techniques has located language centres and identified abnormalities in conditions like depression.

脑成像技术包括 fMRI，测量血流以探测活跃脑区，以及 PET，使用放射性葡萄糖。使用这些技术的研究定位了语言中枢，并识别出抑郁症等状况下的异常表现。

10. Mental Health: Depression and Addiction | 心理健康：抑郁症与成瘾

Unipolar depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest, fatigue, and feelings of worthlessness. The biological explanation focuses on low serotonin levels and a genetic predisposition, while the psychological explanation emphasises Beck's negative cognitive triad and Ellis's ABC model.

单相抑郁症以持续情绪低落、兴趣丧失、疲劳与无价值感为特征。生物解释聚焦于 5-羟色胺水平偏低和遗传易感性，心理解释则强调 Beck 的消极认知三联与 Ellis 的 ABC 模型。

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) combines cognitive restructuring and behavioural activation to challenge irrational thoughts and increase positive activities. Wiles et al. (2013) found that CBT plus usual care led to greater improvement in treatment-resistant depression than usual care alone.

认知行为疗法 (CBT) 结合认知重建与行为激活，挑战非理性思维并增加积极活动。Wiles 等人 (2013) 发现 CBT 结合常规护理对难治性抑郁症的效果优于单纯常规护理。

Addiction (e.g., nicotine, gambling) can be explained through the dopamine reward pathway—addictive substances or behaviours trigger dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, creating pleasure and reinforcing the habit. Withdrawal and tolerance develop as the brain adapts.

成瘾（如尼古丁、赌博）可通过多巴胺奖赏通路解释——成瘾物质或行为引发伏隔核多巴胺释放，产生愉悦并强化习惯。随着大脑适应，戒断反应和耐受性相继出现。

Treatments for nicotine addiction include nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and aversion therapy, while cognitive-behavioural interventions help identify triggers and develop coping strategies. Evaluation critiques biological treatments for side effects and the limited long-term success of psychological therapies.

尼古丁成瘾的治疗包括尼古丁替代疗法 (NRT) 和厌恶疗法，而认知行为干预则帮助识别诱因并制定应对策略。评价指出，生物疗法存在副作用，心理疗法的长期成功率有限。

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