📚 GCSE CIE Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick Guide | GCSE CIE 哲学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is the foundation of success in CIE GCSE Philosophy. This guide pairs every essential term with a clear definition in English and Chinese, grouped by topic, to help you memorise and apply concepts effectively in your exam. Use it as a daily revision companion.
掌握哲学词汇是 CIE GCSE 哲学取得高分的基础。本指南将每个必背术语都配上了清晰的中英文定义，并按照主题分组，帮助你在考场上高效记忆和运用。用它作为每日复习伴侣，稳稳拿分。
1. Epistemology | 认识论
Knowledge: Traditionally defined as justified true belief; a proposition must be true, believed, and supported by evidence or reasons to count as knowledge.
知识： 传统上定义为经过辩护的真信念；一个命题必须是真的、被相信且有证据或理由支持，才能算作知识。
Belief: A mental attitude of acceptance towards a proposition; one can believe something without it being true or justified.
信念： 对某个命题持有接受的心理态度；一个人可以相信某件事，即使它不真实或没有根据。
Truth: Correspondence of a statement with reality; in philosophy, often understood as correspondence theory – a claim is true if it matches the facts.
真理： 陈述与实在的符合；在哲学中常指符合论——如果一个主张与事实相吻合，它就是真的。
Justification: The reasons or evidence that support a belief, turning mere belief into rational belief; central to avoiding lucky guesses.
辩护： 支持某个信念的理由或证据，使单纯的信念变成理性的信念；是避免侥幸猜对的核心。
Gettier problem: Cases where someone has justified true belief but still seems to lack knowledge, challenging the traditional definition.
盖梯尔问题： 某些情景中，某人拥有经过辩护的真信念，但似乎仍缺乏知识，从而挑战了传统定义。
Empiricism: The view that all knowledge ultimately comes from sense experience; key thinkers include Locke and Hume.
经验主义： 认为一切知识最终都来源于感官经验；代表人物有洛克和休谟。
Rationalism: The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and some concepts are innate; Descartes is a leading rationalist.
理性主义： 认为理性是知识的主要来源，某些概念是天赋的；笛卡尔是主要理性主义者。
Scepticism: The position that knowledge is impossible or that we should suspend judgment on many matters; global vs local scepticism.
怀疑论： 认为知识是不可能的，或我们应对许多事情悬置判断的立场；分为全局怀疑论和局部怀疑论。
2. Philosophy of Mind & Self | 心灵哲学与自我
Dualism: The theory that mind and body are two distinct substances; substance dualism (Descartes) holds the mind is a non-physical thinking thing.
二元论： 认为心灵与身体是两种不同实体的理论；实体二元论（笛卡尔）主张心灵是非物质的思考之物。
Materialism (Physicalism): The view that only physical matter exists; the mind is identical to, or a product of, brain processes.
唯物主义（物理主义）： 主张只存在物理物质；心灵等同于大脑过程，或是大脑过程的产物。
Identity theory: A materialist theory claiming mental states are identical to brain states; e.g., pain just is C-fibres firing.
同一论： 一种唯物主义理论，声称心理状态与大脑状态相同一；例如，疼痛就是C纤维的激发。
Behaviourism: (Philosophical) The view that mental states are nothing but behavioural dispositions; to be in pain is to tend to wince, cry out, etc.
行为主义： （哲学上的）认为心理状态不过是行为倾向的观点；处于疼痛中就是倾向于皱眉、喊叫等。
Functionalism: Mental states are defined by their causal roles – their inputs, outputs, and relations to other mental states – not by their physical makeup.
功能主义： 心理状态由其因果角色来定义——即输入、输出以及与其他心理状态的关系——而非由物理构成定义。
Personal identity: The question of what makes someone the same person over time; criteria include psychological continuity (memory) and bodily continuity.
人格同一性： 探讨是什么使得一个人历经时间仍是同一个人；标准包括心理连续性（记忆）和身体连续性。
3. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Theism: Belief in the existence of a God or gods, especially a personal creator who intervenes in the world.
有神论： 相信存在一个或多个神，尤其是相信一位干预世界的位格性创造者。
Atheism: The absence of belief in any god; positive atheism asserts no god exists, negative atheism simply lacks belief.
无神论： 不相信任何神明存在；积极无神论断言没有神，消极无神论仅仅缺乏信仰。
Agnosticism: The view that it is impossible to know whether God exists; the question remains open.
不可知论： 认为不可能知道上帝是否存在；问题悬而未决。
Cosmological argument: An argument for God's existence based on the existence of the universe; typically claims that everything has a cause, leading to a First Cause (God).
宇宙论论证： 基于宇宙存在来论证上帝存在的论证；通常主张万物皆有原因，最终追溯到一个第一因（上帝）。
Teleological argument (Design argument): Argues that the order and purpose in the universe suggest an intelligent designer (God), like Paley's watchmaker analogy.
目的论论证（设计论证）： 主张宇宙中的秩序与目的暗示有一位智慧设计者（上帝），如佩利的钟表匠类比。
Ontological argument: A deductive argument defining God as the greatest conceivable being; since existence is a perfection, God must exist. First proposed by Anselm.
本体论论证： 一种演绎论证，将上帝定义为可设想的最伟大存在者；由于存在是一种完善性，所以上帝必然存在。由安瑟伦首次提出。
Problem of evil: The challenge to the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, all-loving God, given the evident suffering and evil in the world.
恶的问题： 鉴于世界上存在明显的苦难与恶，对全能、全知、全善的上帝存在提出的挑战。
Free will defence: A response to the problem of evil arguing that God allows evil because it is necessary for genuine free will, which is a greater good.
自由意志辩护： 对恶的问题的一种回应，认为上帝允许恶存在是因为真正的自由意志是必需的，而这是一种更大的善。
4. Political Philosophy | 政治哲学
State of nature: A hypothetical condition before any government or laws; used by Hobbes (war of all against all) and Locke (relatively peaceful but inconvenient) to justify political authority.
自然状态： 在政府或法律出现之前的一种假设状态；霍布斯（所有人对所有人的战争）和洛克（相对和平但不便）用它来论证政治权威的合理性。
Social contract: An implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and obey a governing authority in exchange for protection and order.
社会契约： 个体之间默示的协议，大家组成社会并服从统治权威，以换取保护与秩序。
Sovereignty: Supreme power or authority within a territory; the sovereign is the ultimate decision-maker, whether a monarch, parliament, or the people.
主权： 领土内的最高权力或权威；主权者是最终决策者，可以是君主、议会或人民。
Democracy: A system of government where power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives.
民主： 权力由人民掌握的制度，通过直接方式或选举代表来行使。
Rights: Legal, social, or ethical entitlements; natural rights (Locke: life, liberty, property) are considered inherent, not granted by any state.
权利： 法律、社会或伦理上的资格；自然权利（洛克：生命、自由、财产）被认为是固有的，并非由国家授予。
Justice: The concept of moral rightness and fairness; distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of resources; retributive justice concerns punishment.
正义： 道德正当性与公平的概念；分配正义关乎资源的公平分配；报应性正义关乎惩罚。
5. Ethics | 伦理学
Utilitarianism: An ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness (utility); associated with Bentham and Mill. 'Greatest happiness principle.'
功利主义： 一种认为给最多人带来最大幸福的行为就是正确行为的伦理理论；与边沁和密尔相关。“最大幸福原则”。
Deontology: Duty-based ethics, where the rightness of an action depends on its adherence to moral rules or duties, not on consequences; Kant's categorical imperative is central.
义务论： 基于义务的伦理学，行为的对错取决于是否遵守道德规则或义务，而非后果；康德的绝对命令是核心。
Virtue ethics: Focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than specific actions; to be moral is to cultivate virtues like courage, honesty, and compassion (Aristotle).
德性伦理学： 关注道德主体的品格而非具体行为；成为道德的人就是要培养勇气、诚实、同情等德性（亚里士多德）。
Absolute morality: The belief that certain moral rules apply universally, without exception; e.g., 'Do not lie' always holds.
绝对道德： 认为某些道德规则普遍适用、毫无例外的信念；例如“不可撒谎”在任何情况下都成立。
Relativism: The view that moral truths vary between individuals or cultures; there are no objective, universal moral standards.
相对主义： 认为道德真理因个人或文化而异的观点；不存在客观、普遍的道德标准。
Moral dilemma: A situation in which an agent is forced to choose between two conflicting moral requirements, each of which seems equally strong.
道德困境： 行为者被迫在两个互相冲突的道德要求之间做出选择的处境，二者看起来都同样有力。
6. Logic and Argument | 逻辑与论证
Argument: A set of statements where one (the conclusion) is supported by the others (the premises). Not a mere contradiction or quarrel.
论证： 由一组陈述构成，其中一个陈述（结论）由其他陈述（前提）支持。不是简单的反驳或争吵。
Premise: A statement offered as a reason to accept the conclusion; each argument must have at least one premise.
前提： 为接受结论而提供理由的陈述；每个论证必须至少有一个前提。
Conclusion: The statement that the argument is trying to prove or establish; what follows from the premises.
结论： 论证试图证明或确立的陈述；是由前提推出的东西。
Deduction: Reasoning where the conclusion must be true if the premises are true; aims for certainty. Example: All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎： 如果前提为真，则结论必然为真的推理方式；力求确定性。例如：所有人都会死，苏格拉底是人，所以苏格拉底会死。
Induction: Reasoning where the premises provide some degree of support for the conclusion but not certainty; generalising from observed cases. Example: The sun has risen every day, so it will rise tomorrow.
归纳： 前提为结论提供一定程度的支持但非确定性的推理方式；从所观察的案例进行概括。例如：太阳每天都升起，所以明天也会升起。
Validity: A property of deductive arguments: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity concerns the form, not the actual truth of the premises.
有效性： 演绎论证的一种属性：如果前提为真，则结论必然为真。有效性关乎形式，而非前提的实际真值。
Soundness: A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true.
可靠性： 一个演绎论证如果有效且所有前提实际上都为真，它就是可靠的。
7. Key Thinkers Quick Reference | 关键思想家速查
Plato: Ancient Greek philosopher; theory of Forms, distinction between knowledge and belief, tripartite soul. Known for the allegory of the cave.
柏拉图： 古希腊哲学家；提出理念论、知识与信念的区别、灵魂三分说。以洞穴比喻闻名。
René Descartes: 17th-century rationalist; cogito ergo sum ('I think, therefore I am'), substance dualism, and systematic doubt. Meditations on First Philosophy.
勒内·笛卡尔： 17世纪理性主义者；“我思故我在”、实体二元论、以及系统怀疑方法。著有《第一哲学沉思集》。
John Locke: Empiricist; tabula rasa (blank slate), primary vs secondary qualities, social contract and natural rights. Influenced liberal political thought.
约翰·洛克： 经验主义者；白板说、第一性质与第二性质之分、社会契约与自然权利。影响了自由主义政治思想。
David Hume: Scottish empiricist; scepticism about induction, bundle theory of the self, and criticisms of the design argument. Emphasised sentiment in morality.
大卫·休谟： 苏格兰经验主义者；对归纳法的怀疑、自我束论、对设计论证的批评。强调道德中的情感。
Immanuel Kant: Deontologist; categorical imperative ('Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law').
伊曼努尔·康德： 义务论者；提出绝对命令（“只按照你同时能够意愿它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动”）。
Jeremy Bentham: Founder of utilitarianism; principle of utility, hedonistic calculus (weighing pleasure and pain). Advocated for greatest happiness for the greatest number.
杰里米·边沁： 功利主义创始人；功利原则、快乐计算法（衡量快乐与痛苦）。倡导最大多数人的最大幸福。
8. Common Fallacies | 常见谬误
Ad hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than addressing the argument itself. Example: 'You can't trust his view on climate change; he isn't even a scientist.'
人身攻击谬误： 攻击提出论证的人而非论证本身。例如：“你不能相信他对气候变化的看法，他又不是科学家。”
Straw man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack; setting up a 'straw man' and then knocking it down.
稻草人谬误： 曲解对手的论证，使其更容易被攻击；树立一个“稻草人”然后将其击倒。
Begging the question (circular reasoning): Assuming the truth of what one is trying to prove. Example: 'This medicine works because it is effective.'
循环论证（乞题谬误）： 假定所要证明的结论为真。例如：“这种药有效是因为它管用。”
False dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist, forcing a choice between extremes. 'Either you are with us or against us.'
虚假两难谬误： 只给出两个选项，而实际上还有更多，迫使人们在极端之间选择。“你要么支持我们，要么反对我们。”
Slippery slope: Arguing that a small step will inevitably lead to a chain of negative events, without sufficient evidence for the causal chain.
滑坡谬误： 声称一小步将不可避免地导致一系列负面事件，却没有充分证据支持这一因果链条。
Post hoc ergo propter hoc: Assuming that because event A occurred before event B, A caused B. Correlation does not imply causation.
事后归因谬误： 认为事件 A 发生在事件 B 之前，所以 A 导致 B。相关不代表因果。
9. Moral Theories at a Glance | 道德理论一览
Consequentialism: A family of theories judging actions solely by their outcomes or consequences; utilitarianism is the best-known form.
后果论： 一类仅根据行为结果或后果来评判行为的理论；功利主义是最有名的后果论。
Non-consequentialism: Theories denying that consequences alone determine rightness; includes deontology, which prioritises duties or rights over outcomes.
非后果论： 否定仅凭后果决定对错的理论；包括义务论，它把义务或权利置于后果之上。
Hedonism (ethical): The claim that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain the only intrinsic bad; often used in classic utilitarianism.
（伦理）享乐主义： 主张快乐是唯一的内在善，痛苦是唯一的内在恶；常被用于古典功利主义。
Eudaimonia: In Aristotle's virtue ethics, the ultimate goal of human life, often translated as 'flourishing' or 'well-being', achieved through virtuous activity.
幸福论（Eudaimonia）： 亚里士多德德性伦理学中人生的终极目标，常译为“蓬勃发展”或“福祉”，通过有德性的活动来实现。
Golden mean: Aristotelian concept that virtue lies between two extremes (vices); e.g., courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness.
中庸之道： 亚里士多德的概念，认为德性处于两个极端（恶习）之间；例如，勇敢是怯懦与鲁莽之间的中道。
Moral absolutism vs relativism summary: Absolutism holds universal moral truths; relativism denies them, linking morality to culture or individual preference.
道德绝对主义与相对主义概要： 绝对主义主张存在普遍的道德真理；相对主义否认这一点，将道德与文化或个人偏好联系起来。
10. Memory Techniques & Exam Tips | 记忆技巧与考试贴士
Acronym for argument structure: Use P.C.R (Premise, Conclusion, Reasoning) to quickly analyse any philosophical text. Identify what the author is trying to prove.
论证结构缩写： 使用 P.C.R（前提、结论、推理）快速分析任何哲学文本。找出作者想要证明什么。
Link terms to thinkers: Associate key words with philosophers – e.g., 'utility' with Bentham, 'categorical imperative' with Kant, 'I think therefore I am' with Descartes. This builds instant recall.
将术语与思想家挂钩： 把关键词和哲学家关联起来——例如，“功利”对应边沁，“绝对命令”对应康德，“我思故我在”对应笛卡尔。这会建立即时回忆。
Flashcards with English/Chinese definitions: Create double-sided cards: English term on one side, Chinese definition and example on the other. Test yourself daily in short bursts.
中英文定义闪卡： 制作双面卡片：一面是英文术语，另一面是中文定义和例子。每天用短时间自我测试。
Apply terminology in short arguments: Practice writing one-sentence arguments using the terms. For instance, 'The design argument is a teleological argument because it infers purpose.' This cements understanding.
在短论证中运用术语： 练习用术语写一句话论证。例如，“设计论证是一个目的论论证，因为它从目的进行推断。”这会巩固理解。
Group similar terms by theme: Cluster terms like rationalism, empiricism, intuition under 'knowledge sources'. Draw mind maps connecting them to examples and counterexamples.
按主题对相似术语分组： 将诸如理性主义、经验主义、直觉等归类到“知识来源”下。画思维导图，将它们与例子和反例连接起来。
Common exam command words: Explain (give reasons), Discuss (present arguments for and against), Evaluate (judge strength/weakness). Match your terminology use to these commands.
常见考试指令词： 解释（给出理由）、讨论（呈现正反论证）、评价（判断优劣）。让术语的使用与这些指令相匹配。
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