📚 GCSE OCR Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Revision Guide | GCSE OCR 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
This guide brings together the most important sociological terms for the OCR GCSE Sociology course, with clear definitions and Chinese translations. Use it to boost your bilingual understanding and speed up revision.
本指南汇集了 OCR GCSE 社会学课程中最重要的术语，提供清晰的定义和中文翻译，帮助中英对照学习，加速你的复习进程。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
Culture refers to the entire way of life of a society or group. It includes shared norms, values, beliefs, language, customs and material objects such as art and technology.
文化 指某个社会或群体的整个生活方式，包括共有的规范、价值观、信仰、语言、习俗以及艺术、技术等物质对象。
Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a particular society or group. They guide everyday actions, such as queuing or saying 'thank you'.
规范 是特定社会或群体中被视为可接受的行为的未写明规则，例如排队或说“谢谢”。它们引导着日常行为。
Values are deeply held beliefs about what is important, right and wrong. They underpin norms and influence how we judge behaviour, such as valuing honesty or freedom.
价值观 是关于何为重要、何为正确与错误的深层信念。它们支撑着规范，并影响我们如何评判行为，例如崇尚诚实或自由。
Mores are norms that are seen as essential for the welfare of society. Violating them brings strong reactions, such as taboos against murder or incest.
民德 是被视为对社会福祉至关重要的规范。违反它们会引发强烈反应，例如针对谋杀或乱伦的禁忌。
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to enforce norms and values. They can be positive (a medal) or negative (a fine), and applied formally by institutions or informally by peers.
奖惩 是用于执行规范和价值观的奖励或惩罚。它们可以是正面的（一枚奖章）或负面的（罚款），由机构正式实施，或由同伴非正式使用。
2. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society, internalising norms and values to become functioning members.
社会化 是个体学习其社会文化、将规范和价值观内化，从而成为能正常运行的社会成员这一持续终生的过程。
Primary socialisation takes place in early childhood, mainly within the family. It establishes basic norms, language and a sense of self.
初级社会化 发生在幼儿期，主要在家庭内进行。它建立起基本的规范、语言和自我意识。
Secondary socialisation occurs later through agencies such as schools, peer groups, media and the workplace. It teaches the norms of wider society and specific roles.
次级社会化 稍后通过学校、同伴群体、媒体和职场等机构发生。它传授更广阔社会的规范和特定角色。
Agencies of socialisation are the structures and groups that transmit culture, including the family, education system, religion, mass media and peer groups.
社会化机构 是传递文化的结构与群体，包括家庭、教育系统、宗教、大众媒体和同伴群体。
Identity is how we see ourselves and how others see us. It is shaped by social roles, group membership and personal experiences, and may include gender, class, ethnic and national identity.
身份认同 是指我们如何看待自己以及他人如何看待我们。它由社会角色、群体归属和个人经历塑造，可能包括性别、阶级、种族和民族认同。
Master status is the dominant status that overrides all other aspects of a person's identity in the eyes of others, such as being labelled an ex-offender or a celebrity.
主导地位 是在他人眼中压过一个人身份所有其他方面的支配性地位，例如被贴上“前罪犯”或“名人”标签。
3. Social Differentiation and Stratification | 社会分化与分层
Social stratification is the way society is organised into layers or strata, based on factors such as class, gender, ethnicity and age. It involves unequal access to resources and power.
社会分层 是社会根据阶级、性别、种族和年龄等因素被组织为不同层级的方式，它涉及资源与权力的不平等分配。
Social class is a group of people sharing a similar economic position, typically based on income, wealth, occupation and education. In the UK, terms like working class and middle class are often used.
社会阶级 是共享相似经济地位的一群人，通常基于收入、财富、职业和教育。在英国，常用工人阶级和中产阶级等说法。
Life chances refer to the opportunities individuals have to access desirable things in life, such as good health, education, housing and employment. They are strongly influenced by social class.
生活机会 指个人获得人生中好东西的机会，例如健康、教育、住房和就业。它们深受社会阶级的影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social strata. It can be upward or downward, and is often measured across generations (intergenerational) or within a person's own career (intragenerational).
社会流动 指个人或群体在社会阶层之间的移动。它可以是向上或向下的，通常跨代衡量（代际流动）或在个人职业生涯内衡量（代内流动）。
Status is the social prestige or honour attached to a position. It can be ascribed (fixed at birth, such as royal title) or achieved (earned through effort, such as a degree).
地位 是附着于某一位置的社会声望或荣誉。它可以是先赋的（出生即定，如皇室头衔）或自致的（通过努力获得，如学位）。
4. Class Inequality and Poverty | 阶级不平等与贫困
Absolute poverty is a condition where individuals lack the basic resources necessary for physical survival, such as food, clean water and shelter. The World Bank often uses a fixed income threshold to measure it globally.
绝对贫困 是指个体缺乏维持身体生存所需的基本资源，如食物、清洁水和住所。世界银行常使用固定的收入门槛在全球范围内衡量它。
Relative poverty defines poverty in relation to the living standards of the majority in a particular society. In the UK, households below 60% of median income are typically classified as being in relative poverty.
相对贫困 是从特定社会中大多数人的生活标准出发来界定贫困。在英国，收入低于中位收入60%的家庭通常被归为处于相对贫困状态。
Social exclusion goes beyond income poverty, describing how individuals can be cut off from full participation in society due to lack of resources, discrimination or geography, leading to marginalisation.
社会排斥 超越了收入贫困，描述个人因资源匮乏、歧视或地理位置而无法充分参与社会生活，导致被边缘化的现象。
Meritocracy is a system where social positions are allocated solely on the basis of individual merit, ability and effort. Sociologists debate the extent to which real societies are meritocratic.
精英统治 是一种社会地位完全根据个人功绩、能力和努力进行分配的制度。社会学家对现实社会在多大程度上是精英统治的存有争论。
Cycle of deprivation refers to the way poverty and disadvantage are passed from one generation to the next, as low income, poor housing and limited education create barriers that are hard to escape.
剥夺循环 指贫困与弱势如何代代相传，因为低收入、恶劣住房和有限的教育制造了难以摆脱的障碍。
5. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与种族
Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold the dominant power and women are largely excluded from it. Feminists argue patriarchy operates in the family, workplace and politics.
父权制 是一种男性掌握主导权力、女性在很大程度上被排除在外的社会体系。女权主义者认为父权制在家庭、职场和政治中都有运作。
Gender roles are the behaviours, tasks and responsibilities a society considers appropriate for men and women. These are learned through socialisation and can change over time.
性别角色 是社会认为适合男性和女性的行为、任务和责任。它们通过社会化习得，并会随时间改变。
Ethnicity refers to a shared culture, language, history and heritage that distinguishes one group from another. It is distinct from race, which is based on physical characteristics, though the two often overlap in social analysis.
种族 指区分不同群体的共同文化、语言、历史和传统遗产。它与基于身体特征的种族不同，尽管在社会分析中两者常有关联。
Institutional racism describes the way racism is embedded in the normal operations of institutions, such as the police, education or housing systems. It results in systematic disadvantage for ethnic minority groups even without overt prejudice.
制度性种族主义 描述种族主义如何嵌入警察、教育或住房制度等机构的正常运作中。它即使在没有明显偏见的情况下，也会造成对少数族裔群体的系统性不利。
Glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that prevents women and ethnic minorities from reaching top positions in organisational hierarchies, despite having similar qualifications to their white male counterparts.
玻璃天花板 是一道无形的障碍，阻止女性和少数族裔晋升到组织层级中的高层，尽管她们拥有与白人男性相似的资历。
6. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power is the ability of an individual or group to achieve their will, even in the face of resistance from others. It can be exercised through force, influence or legal means.
权力 是个人或群体即使面临他人抵抗也能实现自己意志的能力。它可以通过武力、影响力或法律途径来行使。
Authority is legitimate power – that is, power that is accepted as right and justified by those over whom it is exercised. Max Weber identified three ideal types of authority.
权威 是合法的权力，即被支配者认为是正当、合理的权力。马克斯·韦伯识别出三种理想的权威类型。
Traditional authority rests on longstanding customs and the belief in the sanctity of age-old rules. Monarchies and tribal chiefs often derive authority from tradition.
传统型权威 立足于悠久的习俗和对古老规则神圣性的信仰。君主和部落酋长常从传统中获得权威。
Charismatic authority comes from the exceptional personal qualities of a leader who inspires devotion and loyalty. Revolutionary leaders or cult figures typically hold this type of authority.
魅力型权威 来自领导者非凡的个人品质，其激发出的奉献和忠诚。革命领袖或邪教人物通常拥有此类权威。
Legal-rational authority is based on a system of impersonal rules and laws. Power resides in the office, not the person, as seen in modern bureaucracies and elected governments.
法理型权威 基于一套非人格化的规则和法律体系。权力属于职位而非个人，如现代官僚机构和民选政府所体现的。
Hegemony is a concept used especially by Marxists to describe how the ruling class maintains dominance not just by force but by securing the consent of the masses through ideas and culture, making inequality seem natural.
霸权 尤被马克思主义者用来描述统治阶级如何不仅通过武力，而且通过思想和文化获得大众同意，从而使不平等看起来自然而然，维持支配地位。
7. Major Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
Functionalism sees society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and social order. Each institution, like the family or education, performs functions that contribute to the whole.
功能主义 将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分协同运作以维持稳定和社会秩序。每一个制度，如家庭或教育，都履行有助于整体的功能。
Marxism is a conflict theory arguing that society is based on class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (workers). It sees institutions as serving the interests of the ruling class.
马克思主义 是一种冲突理论，认为社会建立在资产阶级（生产资料所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级斗争之上。它视制度为服务于统治阶级的利益。
Feminism focuses on gender inequality and the way patriarchy shapes social life. Feminist perspectives range from liberal feminism, seeking legal reform, to radical feminism, which argues for a fundamental restructuring of society.
女权主义 关注性别不平等以及父权制如何塑造社会生活。女权主义视角从寻求法律改革的自由女权主义，到主张社会根本性重构的激进女权主义不一而足。
Interactionism concentrates on small-scale, everyday interactions between individuals. It explores how people interpret meanings, use symbols and construct their reality through social interaction, rather than focusing on large structures.
互动论 集中于个体之间小规模的日常互动。它探讨人们如何解读意义、使用符号，并通过社会互动建构其现实，而非聚焦于宏大结构。
Social construction is the idea that many features of social life, such as gender roles, childhood or crime, are not natural or inevitable but are created and defined by society through shared meanings and agreements.
社会建构 指社会生活许多特征，如性别角色、童年或犯罪，并非自然天成或不可避免，而是由社会通过共有的意义和约定创造和界定的。
8. Education and Achievement | 教育与学业成就
Hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons taught in school beyond the official curriculum – such as punctuality, obedience, competition and respect for hierarchy – which prepare pupils for the world of work.
隐性课程 指学校在正式课程之外传授的非正式课程，如守时、服从、竞争和对层级的尊重，这些都为学生的职场生活做了准备。
Labelling is the process of attaching a definition or category to an individual, such as "bright" or "troublesome". According to interactionists, such labels can significantly influence pupils' educational outcomes.
标签化 是将某个定义或类别贴到个体身上的过程，如“聪明”或“惹麻烦”。互动论者认为，这类标签会显著影响学生的教育结果。
Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a false definition of a situation evokes behaviour that makes the original false conception come true. In schools, if a pupil is labelled as underachieving, they may internalise it and start to underperform.
自证预言 是指对情境的错误定义会引发行为，使原本错误的观念成真。在学校，如果一名学生被贴上成绩不良的标签，他可能会内化该标签，从而真的开始表现不佳。
Cultural capital (Pierre Bourdieu) includes non-economic resources such as knowledge, tastes and language skills that can give middle-class children an advantage in the education system, which values these attributes.
文化资本（皮埃尔·布迪厄）包括知识、品味和语言技能等非经济资源。教育系统看重这些特质，从而中产阶级子女获得了优势。
Material deprivation refers to the lack of basic necessities such as adequate housing, nutrition and study space, which can directly harm a child's educational performance and attendance.
物质剥夺 指缺乏基本必需品，如合适的住房、营养和学习空间，这会直接损害儿童的教育表现和出勤率。
9. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance is any behaviour that goes against the norms or expectations of a society or social group. It is not always criminal, as many deviant acts, like wearing unusual clothes, do not break the law.
越轨 指任何违背社会或社会群体规范及期待的行为。它并不总是犯罪，因为许多越轨行为，如穿着奇特，并不触犯法律。
Crime is a specific form of deviance that involves breaking formal laws. What counts as crime varies across time and cultures; acts are only criminal because a law says so.
犯罪 是越轨的一种特殊形式，涉及违反正式法律。什么算作犯罪因时间和文化而异；一个行为只是因为有法律规定才成为犯罪。
Anomie (Emile Durkheim) is a state of normlessness where societal norms break down, often during periods of rapid social change. Durkheim linked anomie to higher rates of suicide and crime.
失范（埃米尔·涂尔干）是一种规范缺失的状态，常出现在社会迅速变革时期，社会规范崩溃。涂尔干将失范与较高的自杀率和犯罪率联系起来。
Labelling theory (Howard Becker) argues that deviance is not inherent in an act, but is the result of the application of rules and sanctions by others. The label of "deviant" can lead to a deviant career.
标签理论（霍华德·贝克尔）认为越轨并非行为本身固有的，而是他人应用规则和制裁的结果。“越轨者”的标签可能导致越轨生涯。
White-collar crime refers to crimes committed by people in high-status positions during the course of their occupations, such as fraud, embezzlement or insider trading. It tends to be under-reported and less severely punished.
白领犯罪 指高地位者在职业过程中实施的犯罪，如欺诈、贪污或内幕交易。这类犯罪往往被低报，且惩罚较轻。
Formal social control is exercised by authorised agencies such as the police, courts and prisons. It relies on written laws and official sanctions. Informal social control is enforced by family, peers and communities through tools like gossip, praise and shame.
正式社会控制 由警察、法院和监狱等授权机构施加，依靠成文法和官方惩罚。非正式社会控制 则由家庭、同伴和社区通过闲言碎语、赞扬和羞辱等工具来执行。
10. Sociological Research Methods | 社会学研究方法
Validity refers to the extent to which a research measure accurately captures the concept it claims to study. A valid study reveals the true picture, even if it is messy and qualitative.
效度 指研究测量在多大程度上准确反映了所要研究的概念。一项有效的研究即使杂乱、偏定性，也能揭示真实情况。
Reliability concerns the consistency of a measure. If the same research method is repeated under similar conditions and yields similar results, it has high reliability, a quality often prized in quantitative methods.
信度 涉及测量的一致性。如果同一研究方法在相似条件下重复，得出相似结果，则具有高信度，这一品质常为定量方法所看重。
Primary data is information collected first-hand by the researcher for the specific purpose of the study, such as through questionnaires, interviews or observations. It offers direct relevance but can be time-consuming to gather.
一手数据 是研究者为特定研究目的而亲自收集的信息，如通过问卷、访谈或观察获得。它直接相关，但收集起来可能耗时。
Secondary data is information that already exists, having been collected by someone else for another purpose. Examples include official statistics, historical documents and previous studies. It saves time but may not perfectly fit the new research aim.
二手数据 是已经存在的、由他人为其他目的收集的信息，如官方统计数据、历史文献和以往研究。它节省时间，但可能不完全契合新的研究目标。
Ethical considerations in sociology include obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, avoiding harm to participants, and being honest about the research aims. Ethical guidelines help protect subjects and maintain professional integrity.
伦理考量 在社会学中包括获取知情同意、确保保密与匿名、避免对参与者造成伤害，以及对研究目的保持诚实。伦理准则有助于保护研究对象并维护专业诚信。
Quantitative data is numerical and often analysed statistically. It is useful for identifying patterns and trends. Qualitative data is non-numerical, such as words, images or narratives, and provides depth and insight into meanings and experiences.
定量数据 是数字形式的，常用统计方法分析，便于识别模式和趋势。定性数据 是非数字的，如文字、影像或叙事，能提供深度和对意义及体验的洞察。
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