📚 GCSE AQA Philosophy: Quick-Fire Glossary & Terminology Guide | GCSE AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary of AQA GCSE Philosophy is half the battle. From epistemology to moral philosophy, precise terminology unlocks higher marks in longer written answers and helps you structure arguments with clarity. This guide breaks down the essential terms you need to remember, grouped by topic area, and provides memory-friendly explanations in both English and Chinese. Use it alongside your revision notes to strengthen your command of key concepts.
掌握 AQA GCSE 哲学的术语是成功的一半。从认识论到道德哲学，精准的术语能以清晰的结构组织论证，帮你在大分值书面题中获得更高分数。本指南按主题分组梳理你必须记住的关键词汇，并配有中英对照的易记解释。配合你的复习笔记使用，能有效强化你对核心概念的理解与运用。
1. Epistemology: Knowledge & Justification | 认识论：知识与辩护
Epistemology asks what knowledge is and how we can claim to know anything. AQA focuses on the tripartite definition of knowledge as justified true belief, along with challenges from scepticism. Getting these terms right is foundational for the whole course.
认识论探讨的是什么是知识，以及我们如何宣称自己知道某件事。AQA 重点关注知识的三元定义（即得到辩护的真信念），以及来自怀疑论的挑战。准确掌握这些术语是整个课程的基础。
Knowledge (Propositional) – typically defined as justified true belief (JTB). You know that p if and only if p is true, you believe that p, and you have adequate justification for believing p.
知识（命题性知识） – 通常被定义为得到辩护的真信念（JTB）。当且仅当 p 为真、你相信 p，并且你拥有相信 p 的充分理由时，你才可以说自己知道 p。
Justification – the evidence or reasons that support a belief. Without justification, even a true belief counts as a lucky guess, not knowledge.
辩护（理由） – 支持某个信念的证据或理由。如果没有辩护，即使信念为真，也只能算作幸运的猜测，而非知识。
Gettier Cases – thought experiments showing that JTB is not sufficient for knowledge, because justification can be accidentally correct. They highlight the need for a 'no false lemmas' condition.
Gettier 案例 – 用于说明 JTB 并不足以构成知识的思想实验，因为辩护可能仅仅是碰巧正确。这些案例凸显了知识需要增加“无假前提”这一条件。
Scepticism – the view that we are unable to know anything with certainty. Global scepticism doubts all knowledge; local scepticism targets specific areas (like the external world).
怀疑论 – 认为我们无法确切知道任何事情的观点。全域怀疑论质疑一切知识；局部怀疑论则针对特定领域（如外部世界）。
Infallibilism – the view that knowledge requires absolute certainty, leaving no room for error. This sets a very high bar and often leads to scepticism.
无误论 – 认为知识需要绝对确定性、不容许任何错误余地的观点。这设定了极高的标准，通常会导致怀疑论。
2. Metaphysics: The Self & Personal Identity | 形而上学：自我与人格同一性
In the metaphysics section, you encounter questions about what makes you the same person over time. The key debate is between physical continuity theories and psychological continuity theories. Clear definitions of substance, qualia, and consciousness help you navigate these arguments.
在形而上学部分，你会遇到到底是什么让过去的你和现在的你是同一个人的问题。核心争论在于身体连续性理论与心理连续性理论之间的对立。清晰地界定实体、感质和意识等术语，有助于你驾驭这些论证。
Personal Identity – the philosophical question of what it is that makes a person at one time the same person as at another time.
人格同一性 – 哲学上的问题，探讨是什么使得某个时间的个体与另一时间的个体是同一个人。
Physical Continuity Theory – the view that a person persists over time if and only if there is enough physical continuity of their body, particularly the brain. Bodily identity is what matters.
身体连续性理论 – 该观点认为，只要一个人的身体（尤其是大脑）存在足够的物理连续性，他就在时间中保持为同一个人。重要的是身体的同一性。
Psychological Continuity Theory – the view that personal identity lies in overlapping chains of psychological states, such as memories, desires, and personality traits. Locke's memory theory is a classic example.
心理连续性理论 – 该观点认为，人格同一性在于重叠的心理状态链条，如记忆、欲望和性格特征。洛克的记忆理论是经典范例。
Qualia – the intrinsic, subjective 'what-it-is-like' qualities of conscious experiences, such as the redness of red or the pain of a headache. Qualia pose a challenge for purely physical accounts of the mind.
感质（Qualia） – 意识经验中内在的、主观的“感受如何”的质性，例如红色的红感或头痛的痛感。感质对纯粹从物理角度解释心灵的尝试构成了挑战。
3. The Existence of God: Arguments & Technical Language | 上帝存在：论证与术语
Arguments for God's existence rely on carefully defined concepts like necessity, contingency, and design. Whether you are explaining the ontological argument or the teleological argument, using the correct vocabulary shows the examiner you understand the logical structure of each argument.
关于上帝存在的论证依赖于必然性、偶然性、设计等被精确定义的概念。无论你是在解释本体论论证还是目的论论证，使用正确的词汇能让考官看出你理解了每个论证的逻辑结构。
A Priori – knowledge or justification that is independent of experience. The ontological argument is an a priori argument because it uses reason alone.
先验（a priori） – 独立于经验的知识或辩护。本体论论证是先验论证，因为它仅使用理性。
A Posteriori – knowledge or justification that depends on experience or empirical evidence. The teleological (design) argument is a posteriori because it starts from observations of the world.
后验（a posteriori） – 依赖于经验或经验证据的知识或辩护。目的论（设计）论证是后验的，因为它从对世界的观察出发。
Necessary Being – a being whose non-existence is impossible. Theists often claim God is a necessary being, grounding all contingent reality.
必然存在者 – 一个其不存在是不可能的存在者。有神论者通常声称上帝是必然存在者，是一切偶然实在的基础。
Contingent Being – a being whose existence is not necessary; it could have not existed. According to the cosmological argument, there must be an explanation for why contingent beings exist.
偶然存在者 – 一种其存在并非必然、本可以不存在的存在者。根据宇宙论论证，必然存在一个对偶然存在者为何存在的解释。
Paley's Watchmaker Analogy – the classic teleological argument: if you find a watch, you infer a watchmaker; similarly, the complexity of the universe points to an intelligent designer.
佩利的钟表匠类比 – 经典的目的论论证：如果你发现一块手表，你会推断存在制表匠；同理，宇宙的复杂性指向一位智能设计者。
4. The Problem of Evil: Logical & Evidential | 恶的问题：逻辑恶与证据恶
The problem of evil is arguably the strongest challenge to belief in an all-loving, all-powerful God. AQA expects you to distinguish between the logical and evidential problems, and to know key theodicies. Terms like 'gratuitous evil' and 'theodicy' must be used accurately.
恶的问题可能是对有神论最有力的挑战。AQA 期望你区分逻辑恶的问题与证据恶的问题，并了解关键的神义论。必须准确使用“无端之恶”和“神义论”等术语。
Moral Evil – suffering caused by the free choices of moral agents, such as murder or theft.
道德之恶 – 由道德行动者的自由选择造成的苦难，如谋杀或偷窃。
Natural Evil – suffering caused by natural events and processes, such as earthquakes, diseases, and floods, without direct human agency.
自然之恶 – 由自然事件和过程引起的苦难，如地震、疾病和洪水，其中没有人类的直接干预。
Logical Problem of Evil – the claim that the existence of any evil is logically incompatible with the existence of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God. Mackie stated that the set 'God exists' and 'Evil exists' is contradictory.
逻辑恶的问题 – 主张任何恶的存在，在逻辑上都与全能全善的上帝存在不相容。麦基指出，“上帝存在”与“恶存在”这一组命题是矛盾的。
Evidential Problem of Evil – the weaker, inductive argument that the vast amount and distribution of seemingly pointless suffering makes God's existence highly improbable.
证据恶的问题 – 一种较弱的归纳性论证，认为大量、分布广泛且看似无意义苦难的存在，使得上帝存在的可能性极低。
Theodicy – an attempt to justify God's goodness despite the presence of evil. The free will defence and soul-making theodicy are the two main strands.
神义论（Theodicy） – 在承认恶存在的前提下，为上帝的良善提供辩护的尝试。主要分为自由意志辩护和灵魂塑造神义论两大路径。
5. Religious Language: Meaning & Verification | 宗教语言：意义与证实
Can we even speak meaningfully about God? The verification principle and falsification debate are central to this unit. You must be able to explain what it means for a statement to be factually significant and why some philosophers think religious claims fail this test.
我们能够有意义地谈论上帝吗？证实原则与证伪辩论是本单元的核心。你必须能解释什么是一个陈述具有事实意义，以及为什么一些哲学家认为宗教主张未能通过这一检验。
Verification Principle – the logical positivist claim that a statement is only meaningful if it is either analytic (true by definition) or verifiable (at least in principle) by sense experience.
证实原则 – 逻辑实证主义者的主张，即一个陈述只有在要么是分析命题（通过定义就为真），要么（至少在原则上）能被感官经验所证实时，才是有意义的。
Falsification Principle – Antony Flew's idea that a statement is only meaningful if there is some possible evidence that would count against it. Religious statements, Flew argued, 'die the death of a thousand qualifications' because believers allow nothing to falsify them.
证伪原则 – 安东尼·弗卢的观点，即一个陈述只有存在某种可能反对它的证据时，才是有意义的。他主张宗教陈述因信徒不允许任何事物证伪它们，而“死于千条限定条件的死亡”。
Blik – R.M. Hare's term for a foundational, non-verifiable way of seeing the world that is meaningful to the individual, yet neither verifiable nor falsifiable. Religion, Hare suggested, is a blik rather than a set of factual claims.
Blik（世界观立场） – R.M. 黑尔使用的术语，指一种基础的、无法证实或证伪的看世界方式，它对个体而言有意义，却既非可证实也非可证伪。黑尔认为宗教是一种 blik，而非一组事实性断言。
Analogy – Aquinas's approach: we speak of God using terms drawn from human experience but with an awareness that the meaning is not univocal or equivocal but analogous. God's love is not exactly like human love, but it is proportionally similar.
类比 – 阿奎那的方法：我们使用从人类经验中汲取的术语谈论上帝，但意识到其意义既非完全单一，也非完全歧义，而是类比性的。上帝的爱并非完全像人类的爱，但在比例上相似。
6. Life After Death: Dualism vs Materialism | 死后生命：二元论与唯物主义
The possibility of life after death depends largely on whether the mind (or soul) can exist independently of the body. Key terms here help you compare substance dualism, property dualism, and reductive physicalism. Precise definitions also help you evaluate arguments for and against the resurrection of the body.
死后生命的可能性，在很大程度上取决于心灵（或灵魂）是否能独立于身体存在。这里的关键术语有助于你比较实体二元论、属性二元论与还原式物理主义。精确的定义也有助于你评价支持与反对肉身复活的论证。
Substance Dualism – the view that the mind and body are two distinct substances: mental substance (non-physical) and physical substance. Descartes is the key proponent.
实体二元论 – 认为心灵和身体是两种不同的实体：精神实体（非物理）与物理实体。笛卡尔是主要的倡导者。
Resurrection – the claim that after death God will recreate the person in a transformed body, preserving personal identity through divine memory or an intermediate state. This is the mainstream Christian position.
复活 – 主张人死后上帝将在一个经过转变的身体中再造此人，并通过神圣记忆或中间状态来保存人格同一性。这是主流的基督教立场。
Reincarnation – the rebirth of a soul in a new body after biological death, often tied to the law of karma. Personal identity is carried by a mental continuum, not the same brain.
轮回 – 灵魂在生物学死亡后再次投生到一个新的身体中，通常与业力法则相关。人格同一性由一个心理连续体承载，而非同一个大脑。
Near-Death Experience (NDE) – reported experiences of floating, a tunnel of light, and feelings of peace when a person is close to clinical death. Dualists treat these as evidence for a separable mind; materialists explain them through neurobiology.
濒死体验（NDE） – 当人濒临临床死亡时，所报告的漂浮、光隧道和平安感的体验。二元论者将其视为心智可分离的证据；唯物论者则通过神经生物学来解释。
7. Free Will, Determinism & Moral Responsibility | 自由意志、决定论与道德责任
The free will debate intersects with metaphysics, ethics, and the philosophy of mind. You need to be confident with terms like 'libertarianism', 'compatibilism', and 'hard determinism', and to understand how these positions affect moral responsibility.
自由意志辩论与形而上学、伦理学及心灵哲学相交织。你需要熟练掌握“自由意志论”、“相容论”和“强硬决定论”等术语，并理解这些立场如何影响道德责任。
Determinism – the thesis that every event, including human actions, is causally necessitated by prior events and the laws of nature.
决定论 – 主张每一个事件，包括人类行动，都是由先行事件与自然法则因果地必然规定的论点。
Libertarianism (Free Will) – the view that free will is incompatible with determinism, and that we do in fact have free will. It usually requires a non-determined, agent-causal power.
自由意志论（Libertarianism） – 认为自由意志与决定论不相容，且我们事实上确实拥有自由意志的观点。它通常要求一种非被决定的、行动者因果性的能力。
Compatibilism (Soft Determinism) – the view that free will and determinism are compatible. A person acts freely as long as they act according to their own desires, without external coercion, even if those desires are determined.
相容论（温和决定论） – 认为自由意志与决定论可以相容的观点。只要一个人按自己的欲望行动且没有外部强迫，就是自由的，即便那些欲望本身是被决定的。
Hard Determinism – the incompatibilist view that determinism is true and, because it is true, free will does not exist. This typically leads to a denial of moral responsibility in the ultimate sense.
强硬决定论 – 一种不相容论立场，认为决定论为真，且正因如此，自由意志不存在。这通常导致在终极意义上否认道德责任。
Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP) – the principle that a person is morally responsible for what they have done only if they could have done otherwise. Frankfurt cases challenge this principle.
替代可能性原则（PAP） – 该原则主张，一个人只有在当时本可以不那么做的情况下，才对自己所做的负有道德责任。法兰克福式案例挑战了这一原则。
8. Moral Philosophy: Normative Theories | 道德哲学：规范性理论
AQA's ethics section requires you to apply, compare, and evaluate three main theories: Utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, and Aristotelian virtue ethics. Knowing the precise terminology for each theory — hedonic calculus, categorical imperative, the doctrine of the mean — is essential for top-band answers.
AQA 的伦理学部分要求你运用、比较和评价三大理论：功利主义、康德伦理学和亚里士多德德性伦理学。准确掌握每个理论的术语——苦乐计算、定言令式、中道学说——是拿到高分答案的关键。
Utilitarianism – the teleological theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure. Act utilitarianism applies the principle to each individual act; rule utilitarianism applies it to general rules.
功利主义 – 一种目的论理论，认为正确的行为就是能最大化总体幸福或快乐的行为。行为功利主义将该原则应用于每一个别行为；规则功利主义则将其应用于一般规则。
Hedonic Calculus – Bentham's seven criteria for measuring pleasure: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. Remember the mnemonic 'It's Definitely Cold, Please Fetch Proper Equipment'.
苦乐计算 – 边沁用以衡量快乐的七项标准：强度、持续时间、确定性、远近程度、继生性、纯粹性和范围。记住口诀“I D C P F P E”可帮助回忆。
Categorical Imperative – Kant's absolute moral law that must be obeyed in all circumstances. The first formulation: 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.'
定言令式 – 康德提出的绝对的道德律，必须在任何情况下都被遵守。第一表述：“要只按照你同时能够愿意它成为一条普遍法则的那个准则去行动。”
Virtue Ethics – an agent-centred approach that focuses on the development of good character traits (virtues) rather than on the rightness of individual acts. Eudaimonia (flourishing) is the goal.
德性伦理学 – 一种以行动者为中心的进路，关注的是良好品格特质（德性）的培养，而非个别行为的对错。终极目标是 eudaimonia（人的兴盛）。
Doctrine of the Mean – Aristotle's claim that each moral virtue is a golden mean between two vices: one of excess and one of deficiency. Courage, for example, is the mean between cowardice and rashness.
中道学说 – 亚里士多德的主张，认为每种道德德性都是两个恶的中庸：一个是过度，一个是不及。例如，勇敢就是怯懦与鲁莽之间的中道。
9. Applied Ethics: Key Concepts | 应用伦理学：关键概念
When applying ethical theories to issues such as animal rights, abortion, or capital punishment, you must use the language of applied ethics. Terms like 'sanctity of life', 'quality of life', and 'personhood' carry strong philosophical weight and must be defined precisely.
当你将伦理学理论应用于动物权利、堕胎或死刑等问题时，你必须使用应用伦理学的语言。诸如“生命神圣性”、“生命质量”和“位格性”等术语承载着强大的哲学分量，必须精确定义。
Sanctity of Life – the principle that human life is sacred and valuable in itself, often grounded in the belief that it is created by God. This view usually leads to a pro-life stance in abortion debates.
生命神圣性 – 该原则认为人类生命本身就是神圣而有价值的，通常基于生命由上帝创造的信念。这种观点在堕胎辩论中通常导致保护生命的立场。
Quality of Life – the view that the moral value of a life depends on factors such as consciousness, capacity for relationships, and freedom from pain. Applied to euthanasia, it may justify ending a life of very low quality.
生命质量 – 该观点认为生命的道德价值取决于意识、建立关系的能力以及免于痛苦等因素。应用于安乐死问题时，可能会证成终止极低质量的生命。
Personhood – a moral and philosophical concept designating a being with full moral rights. Criteria for personhood may include rationality, self-awareness, and the capacity to communicate. The debate often centres on whether fetuses or some animals qualify as persons.
位格性 – 一个道德和哲学概念，指代拥有完全道德权利的存有者。位格性的标准可能包括理性、自我意识以及交流能力。争论常围绕胎儿或某些动物是否具有位格性展开。
Slippery Slope Argument – the claim that allowing a particular practice (e.g., voluntary euthanasia) will inevitably lead to unacceptable consequences (e.g., non-voluntary euthanasia). It is a common argument in applied ethics.
滑坡论证 – 主张允许某种做法（如自愿安乐死）将不可避免地导致无法接受的后果（如非自愿安乐死）。这是应用伦理学中一种常见的论证形式。
10. Meta-Ethics: The Meaning of Good | 元伦理学：“善”的意义
Meta-ethics asks what we are doing when we say something is 'right' or 'wrong'. Terms here can be slippery, but distinguishing between cognitivism and non-cognitivism, and between naturalism and non-naturalism, is critical.
元伦理学追问的是，当我们说某件事“对”或“错”时，我们在做什么。这里的术语可能很滑，但区分认知主义与非认知主义、自然主义与非自然主义至关重要。
Cognitivism – the view that ethical statements express beliefs that can be true or false. When I say 'murder is wrong', I am stating a fact, and that fact can be known.
认知主义 – 认为伦理陈述表达了可以为真或为假的信念。当我说“杀人是错误的”，我是在陈述一个事实，且该事实可以被认知。
Non-Cognitivism – the view that ethical statements do not express propositions that can be true or false; instead, they express emotions (emotivism) or prescriptions (prescriptivism).
非认知主义 – 认为伦理陈述并不表达可以为真或假的命题；相反，它们表达情感（情绪主义）或规定（规定主义）。
Naturalism (Ethical) – the cognitivist view that moral properties are identical to or reducible to natural properties that can be investigated empirically. Utilitarianism is often seen as naturalistic because it reduces goodness to pleasure.
伦理自然主义 – 一种认知主义观点，认为道德属性等同于或可还原为自然属性，并可通过经验加以研究。功利主义常被视为自然主义，因为它把善还原为快乐。
Non-Naturalism – the cognitivist view (associated with G.E. Moore) that 'good' is a simple, non-natural property, not reducible to any natural feature. Moore argued that all attempts to define good commit the 'naturalistic fallacy'.
伦理非自然主义 – 一种认知主义观点（与 G.E. 摩尔相关），认为“善”是一种单纯的、非自然的属性，不可还原为任何自然特征。摩尔主张，所有定义善的尝试都犯了“自然主义谬误”。
Naturalistic Fallacy – Moore's charge that it is a mistake to identify the property 'good' with any natural property (like pleasure), because the question 'Is pleasure good?' always remains open.
自然主义谬误 – 摩尔提出的指责，认为将“善”这一属性等同于任何自然属性（如快乐）是一个错误，因为“快乐是善的吗？”这个问题始终是开放性的。
11. Exam Command Words & Answer Structure | 考试指令词与答题结构
AQA GCSE Philosophy questions use specific command words that signal the depth and style of answer you need to give. Misinterpreting 'explain' for 'evaluate' can cost marks. This section translates those command words into clear action points.
AQA GCSE 哲学考题使用特定的指令词，用以提示你所需回答的深度与风格。误将“解释”当作“评价”会导致失分。本节将这些指令词转化为明确的行动要点。
Outline – give a brief summary of the main features or points. Avoid going into deep evaluation; state the position in a clear, structured way.
概述 – 简要总结主要特征或要点。避免深入评价；以清晰、有条理的方式陈述立场即可。
Explain – set out the meaning of a concept or argument, including how it works and why it is important. Use connectives such as 'this means that' and 'this leads to'.
解释 – 阐明一个概念或论证的含义，包括其如何运作以及为何重要。使用“这意味着”和“这导致”等连接词。
Analyse – examine the components or structure of an argument in detail, identifying logical relationships and potential flaws. Break the argument down and show how the parts fit together.
分析 – 详细检视一个论证的构成部分或结构，识别其中的逻辑关系及潜在缺陷。拆解论证，展示各部分的衔接方式。
Evaluate – make a judgement about the strengths and weaknesses of an argument or theory, and come to a reasoned conclusion. Use phrases like 'a key strength is... however, a significant limitation is...'.
评价 – 对某个论证或理论的优缺点做出判断，并得出合理的结论。使用诸如“一个关键的优点在于……然而，一个显著的局限性是……”的措辞。
12-mark Question Structure – for 'Evaluate' questions, plan three well-developed paragraphs: one explaining the argument, one offering a counter-argument, and a final paragraph with your justified conclusion.
12 分题结构 – 对于“评价”类问题，规划三个层次分明的段落：一段解释论证，一段提出反论证，最后一段给出带有辩护的结论。
12. Quick Memory Techniques: Mnemonics, Tables & Comparative Charts | 快速记忆技巧：口诀、表格与对比图
Here are some memory aids that stick. From simple acronyms for the hedonic calculus to a comparison table of theodicies, use these to lock in the terminology. Create your own visual recall of the differences between dualism and materialism, or between various arguments for God's existence.
以下是一些易记的记忆辅助工具。从适用于苦乐计算的简单首字母缩略词，到神义论的对比表格，用这些方法来锁定术语。你可以自己建立关于二元论与唯物主义差异，或关于各种上帝存在论证的视觉回忆。
| Theory | Key Thinker | Core Term | Quick Reminder |
|---|---|---|---|
| Substance Dualism | Descartes | Res Cogitans / Res Extensa | Mind and body are two distinct substances |
| Utilitarianism | Bentham / Mill | Greatest Happiness Principle | Quantity vs quality of pleasure |
| Kantian Ethics | Kant | Categorical Imperative | Duty for duty's sake, universalisability |
| Virtue Ethics | Aristotle | Doctrine of the Mean | Golden mean between vices |
When studying, try compressed retrieval: write one term on the front of a card, and on the back the definition plus one strength and one weakness. This mimics the 'explain and evaluate' demand of the exam. Over time, the precise phrasing becomes second nature.
学习时可以尝试压缩式检索：在卡片正面写一个术语，背面写上定义加上一条优点和一条缺点。这模拟了考试中“解释与评价”的要求。久而久之，精确的表述就会变成你的第二天性。
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