📚 GCSE AQA Psychology: Core Knowledge Review | GCSE AQA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to this comprehensive revision guide covering the essential topics for the AQA GCSE Psychology specification. We have distilled the key theories, landmark studies, and fundamental concepts from both Paper 1 (Cognition and Behaviour) and Paper 2 (Social Context and Behaviour) into clear, digestible summaries. Use this resource to consolidate your knowledge, identify areas for further review, and build confidence ahead of your examinations.
欢迎阅读这份覆盖 AQA GCSE 心理学考纲核心主题的综合复习指南。我们从试卷一（认知与行为）和试卷二（社会背景与行为）中提炼了关键理论、里程碑式的研究和基本概念，整理成清晰易懂的总结。请使用这份资源来巩固知识、找出需深入复习的薄弱环节，并在考试前建立信心。
1. Memory | 记忆
The multi-store model (MSM) by Atkinson and Shiffrin proposes that memory consists of three distinct stores: the sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows linearly from sensory memory to STM via attention, and then to LTM through rehearsal.
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin 提出的多重储存模型（MSM）认为记忆由三个独立的储存库组成：感觉登记、短期记忆（STM）和长期记忆（LTM）。信息线性的通过注意从感觉记忆进入短期记忆，再通过复述进入长期记忆。
out 18-30 seconds without rehearsal), as shown by Peterson and Peterson (1959) using trigrams. LTM is argued to have unlimited capacity and duration.
关键的是，短期记忆的容量有限（7 ± 2 个项目）且持续时间短（不复述约 18-30 秒），正如 Peterson 和 Peterson (1959) 使用三字母组合实验所证明。长期记忆则被认为具有无限的容量和持续时间。
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) later refined this with the working memory model, featuring the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. This model better explains how we multitask and process complex information.
后来 Baddeley 和 Hitch (1974) 通过工作记忆模型进行了改进，包括中央执行器、语音回路、视空间画板和情节缓冲器。该模型更好地解释了我们如何同时处理多项任务和复杂信息。
Forgetting from LTM can be due to interference (proactive and retroactive) or retrieval failure because of missing contextual cues. Bartlett's 'War of the Ghosts' study highlighted how memory is reconstructive and influenced by schemas.
长期记忆的遗忘可能是由于干扰（前摄干扰和倒摄干扰）或由于缺少情境线索导致的提取失败。Bartlett 的“幽灵战争”研究强调了记忆是重构性的，并受图式的影响。
2. Perception | 感知
Perception is the process of interpreting sensory information to make sense of the world. It differs from sensation, which is the raw detection of stimuli by our senses. The core debate is between direct and constructivist theories.
感知是解释感觉信息以理解世界的过程。它不同于感觉，感觉是我们感官对刺激的原始检测。核心争论在直接理论与建构主义理论之间。
Gibson's direct theory argues that the environment provides sufficient cues (affordances) for perception without the need for mental processing. Key concepts include optic flow and texture gradient. She famously used the 'visual cliff' experiment to show depth perception is innate.
Gibson 的直接理论认为环境提供了足够的线索（可供性）用于感知，无需心理加工。关键概念包括光流和纹理梯度。她著名的“视觉悬崖”实验表明深度知觉是先天具备的。
Gregory's constructivist theory proposes that we actively construct perceptions using past experience, inferences, and expectations. Visual illusions (e.g., Müller-Lyer, Ponzo) support this by showing how the brain can be tricked by depth cues. Factors like emotion (e.g., Gilchrist & Nesberg's hunger study) and culture (e.g., Hudson's pictures) also affect perception.
Gregory 的建构主义理论提出我们利用过去经验、推理和预期主动构建感知。视错觉（如缪勒-莱耶错觉、庞佐错觉）通过展示大脑如何被深度线索欺骗来支持这一理论。情绪（如 Gilchrist 和 Nesberg 的饥饿研究）和文化（如 Hudson 的图片研究）等因素也会影响感知。
Gregory's theory is supported by cases of visual agnosia and perceptual set studies, but it underestimates the accuracy of direct perception highlighted by Gibson.
Gregory 的理论得到了视觉失认症和知觉定势研究的支持，但它低估了 Gibson 强调的直接感知的准确性。
3. Development | 发展
Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests children pass through four universal stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. A key feature is the use of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation to build understanding.
皮亚杰的认知发展理论认为儿童经历四个普遍阶段：感觉运动阶段、前运算阶段、具体运算阶段和形式运算阶段。一个关键特征是运用图式、同化和顺应以建立理解。
In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years), children gain conservation (the understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in shape). Piaget demonstrated this with his famous conservation of number and volume tasks. However, critics like McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) showed that using a 'naughty teddy' could change results, suggesting task context matters.
在具体运算阶段（7-11 岁），儿童获得守恒（理解尽管形状改变但数量保持不变）。皮亚杰用他著名的数字和体积守恒任务证明了这一点。然而，像 McGarrigle 和 Donaldson (1974) 的批评者表明，使用“顽皮的泰迪熊”可以改变结果，提示任务情境很重要。
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasises the role of social interaction and language. His concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) describes what a child can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (scaffolding).
维果茨基的社会文化理论强调社会互动和语言的作用。他的“最近发展区”（ZPD）概念描述了儿童在更有知识的人指导下（支架作用）所能达到的水平。
Dweck's mindset theory differentiates between a fixed mindset (believing ability is innate) and a growth mindset (believing ability can improve through effort). Praise for effort rather than ability encourages a growth mindset. Studies by Mueller and Dweck (1998) showed children praised for intelligence avoided harder tasks later.
Dweck 的心态理论区分了固定型心态（认为能力是天生的）和成长型心态（认为能力可以通过努力提升）。表扬努力而非能力能促进成长型心态。Mueller 和 Dweck (1998) 的研究显示被
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