📚 Key Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide for CCEA Year 13 Economics | CCEA 13年级经济学关键术语速记指南
Welcome to this quick-reference guide designed to help Year 13 students master the essential terminology for the CCEA A-Level Economics course. Understanding the precise definitions and relationships between key terms is crucial for high marks in data response, essays, and multiple-choice questions. The following sections break down complex ideas into manageable pairings, using clear English explanations and their Chinese equivalents to support dual-language learners.
欢迎使用这篇快速参考指南，专为帮助13年级学生掌握CCEA A-Level经济学课程的核心术语而设计。理解关键概念的准确定义及其相互关系，对于在数据应答、论文和选择题中取得高分至关重要。以下各节将复杂概念分解为便于记忆的成对解释，用清晰的英文说明及其中文对应，以支持双语学习者。
1. Fundamentals of Costs and Revenues | 成本与收益基础
Fixed costs (FC) are expenses that do not change with the level of output in the short run, such as rent, insurance, or loan repayments. They must be paid even if production is zero.
固定成本（FC）是短期内不随产量水平变化的支出，例如租金、保险费或贷款偿还。即使产量为零也必须支付。
Marginal cost (MC) is the additional cost incurred from producing one extra unit of output, calculated as the change in total cost divided by the change in quantity.
边际成本（MC）是增加一单位产量所带来的额外成本，用总成本的变化量除以数量的变化量来计算。
MC = ΔTC ÷ ΔQ
Average cost (AC) equals total cost divided by output and is often called unit cost. It can be split into average fixed cost and average variable cost.
平均成本（AC）等于总成本除以产量，常被称为单位成本。它可以拆分为平均固定成本和平均可变成本。
lower than MR, the firm should expand output; if MC exceeds MR, it should contract output.
利润最大化发生在边际成本等于边际收益时（MC = MR）。如果MC低于MR，企业应扩大产出；如果MC超过MR，则应缩减产出。
2. Market Structures and Competition | 市场结构与竞争
Market structures are classified by the number of firms, the degree of product differentiation, the ease of entry and exit, and the availability of information. The spectrum ranges from perfect competition to monopoly.
市场结构根据企业数量、产品差异程度、进入与退出的难易度以及信息的可得性进行分类。其范围从完全竞争延伸至垄断。
Barriers to entry are obstacles that prevent new firms from easily entering an industry. Examples include high start-up costs, control of essential resources, and legal barriers such as patents.
进入壁垒是阻止新企业轻易进入某一行业的障碍。例子包括高昂的启动成本、对关键资源的控制和专利等法律壁垒。
Product differentiation refers to the way firms distinguish their goods from those of competitors, through branding, quality, design, or customer service. It can create a degree of monopoly power.
产品差异化是指企业通过品牌、质量、设计或客户服务等方式，将自己的产品与竞争对手区分开来。这可以产生一定程度的市场势力。
3. Perfect Competition and Monopoly | 完全竞争与垄断
A perfectly competitive market features many small firms, identical products, no barriers to entry or exit, and perfect information. Each firm is a price taker, meaning it must accept the market price.
完全竞争市场的特征包括众多小型企业、同质产品、没有进入或退出壁垒以及完全信息。每个企业都是价格接受者，即必须接受市场价格。
), meaning consumer preferences are being matched exactly by what is produced. Perfect competition delivers allocative efficiency in the long run.
当价格等于边际成本（P = MC）时，就实现了配置效率，意味着消费者偏好恰好与所生产的商品匹配。完全竞争在长期中实现配置效率。
A pure monopoly occurs when a single firm supplies the entire market. Monopolists are price makers and may earn supernormal profits in the long run due to high barriers to entry.
纯粹垄断是指单一企业供应整个市场的情况。垄断者是价格制定者，并可能因高进入壁垒而在长期中获得超额利润。
A natural monopoly arises when high fixed costs make it more efficient for one firm to serve the whole market, such as in water supply or rail infrastructure. Regulation is often required to prevent excessive pricing.
当高昂的固定成本使得由一家企业服务整个市场更有效率时，便出现了自然垄断，例如供水或铁路基础设施。通常需要监管以防止过高定价。
4. Oligopoly and Game Theory | 寡头与博弈论
An oligopoly is a market dominated by a few large firms, where entry barriers are significant and firms are interdependent. The concentration ratio measures the combined market share of the largest firms.
寡头是一种由少数大企业主导的市场，进入壁垒显著且企业间相互依赖。集中度比率衡量最大企业的合计市场份额。
The kinked demand curve model explains price rigidity in oligopolistic markets. If a firm raises its price, rivals will not follow, causing a large loss of sales; if it lowers price, rivals will match the cut, so demand is steeper below the current price.
弯折需求曲线模型解释了寡头市场中的价格刚性。如果一家企业提价，竞争对手不会跟随，导致销量大幅减少；如果降价，对手会跟进降价，因此在当前价格以下，需求更陡峭。
Collusion occurs when firms co-operate to restrict competition, often by fixing prices or output. Overt collusion is illegal in many economies, while tacit collusion can be harder to detect.
共谋是指企业合作限制竞争，通常通过固定价格或产量。公开共谋在众多经济体中属非法行为，而默契共谋更难被察觉。
In game theory, the prisoner's dilemma shows how rational firms may end up with a worse outcome because of a lack of trust. The Nash equilibrium is reached when each firm chooses its best strategy given the other's choice, but this may not be the collectively best outcome.
在博弈论中，囚徒困境表明理性的企业可能因缺乏信任而最终得到更差的结果。当每个企业都根据对方的选择采取最优策略时，便达到了纳什均衡，但这未必是集体最佳结果。
5. Labour Market and Wage Determination | 劳动力市场与工资决定
The demand for labour is a derived demand: it depends on the demand for the goods and services that labour produces. If product demand rises, firms will hire more workers.
劳动需求是一种派生需求：它取决于对劳动所生产商品和服务的需求。若产品需求上升，企业便会雇佣更多工人。
The marginal revenue product of labour (MRPL) equals the marginal product of labour multiplied by the marginal revenue. A profit-maximising firm hires up to the point where MRPL equals the wage rate.
劳动的边际收益产品（MRPL）等于劳动的边际产量乘以边际收益。追求利润最大化的企业会一直雇佣，直到MRPL等于工资率。
A monopsony occurs when there is a single buyer of labour in a market. This gives the employer power to drive wages below the competitive level, often resulting in a lower number of workers employed.
当市场上只有一个劳动力买家时，便出现买方垄断。这使得雇主有能力将工资压低到竞争水平以下，通常导致雇佣工人数量减少。
A national minimum wage set above the equilibrium can, in some circumstances, increase both wages and employment in a monopsonistic market, countering the conventional argument that it always creates unemployment.
设定在均衡水平之上的全国最低工资，在某些情况下反而能在买方垄断市场中同时提高工资与就业，从而反驳了最低工资必然导致失业的传统论点。
6. Market Failure and Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Key sources include externalities, public goods, information gaps, and monopoly power.
市场失灵发生在自由市场无法有效配置资源之时。主要来源包括外部性、公共物品、信息缺口和市场势力。
A negative production externality, such as factory pollution, imposes a cost on third parties not reflected in the supply curve. This leads to over-production compared to the socially optimal level.
负生产外部性，如工厂污染，给第三方带来了未在供给曲线中反映的成本。这导致产量超过社会最优水平。
Public goods are non-rival (one person's consumption does not reduce availability for others) and non-excludable (no one can be prevented from using them). National defence and street lighting are classic examples.
公共物品具有非竞争性（一个人的消费不减少他人的可用量）和非排他性（无法阻止任何人使用）。国防和路灯是经典例子。
Governments can correct market failure using taxation, subsidies, regulation, and provision of information. For negative externalities, an indirect tax equal to the external cost can internalise the externality and reduce demand to a more efficient level.
政府可以通过征税、补贴、监管和信息提供来纠正市场失灵。针对负外部性，征收等于外部成本的间接税可将外部性内部化，使需求降至更高效水平。
7. Macroeconomic Objectives and Indicators | 宏观经济目标与指标
The main macroeconomic objectives include sustainable economic growth, low and stable inflation, low unemployment, and a satisfactory balance of payments on the current account.
宏观经济的主要目标包括可持续的经济增长、低而稳定的通货膨胀、低失业率以及令人满意的经常账户收支状况。
Inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Retail Price Index (RPI). CPI excludes housing costs such as mortgage interest payments, while RPI includes them and tends to be slightly higher.
通货膨胀通过消费者价格指数（CPI）和零售价格指数（RPI）来衡量。CPI不包括住房成本如抵押贷款利息偿付，而RPI将其包含在内，因而通常略高。
Unemployment types include cyclical (caused by a lack of aggregate demand), structural (mismatch of skills), frictional (workers moving between jobs), and seasonal (tied to certain times of the year).
失业类型包括周期性失业（由总需求不足引起）、结构性失业（技能错配）、摩擦性失业（工人在不同工作间转换）和季节性失业（与一年中特定时间相关）。
Economic growth is typically measured by the percentage change in real GDP, which adjusts for inflation to show the true increase in a nation's output over time.
经济增长通常以实际GDP的百分比变化来衡量，该指标剔除了通胀影响，以显示一国产出在一段时间内的真实增长。
8. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply | 总需求与总供给
is consumption, I is investment, G is government spending, X is exports, and M is imports.
总需求（AD）是对一国商品和服务的总支出，由AD = C + I + G + (X - M)给出，其中C为消费，I为投资，G为政府支出，X为出口，M为进口。
The downward slope of the AD curve is explained by the real balance effect, the interest rate effect and the international trade effect. A fall in the price level increases real wealth, reduces interest rates and improves net exports.
AD曲线向右下倾斜可由实际余额效应、利率效应和国际贸易效应来解释。物价水平下降会增加实际财富、降低利率并改善净出口。
Short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) is upward sloping because nominal wages and some input prices are sticky. In the long run, aggregate supply (LRAS) is vertical, representing the economy's full-employment output.
短期总供给（SRAS）曲线向上倾斜，因为名义工资和部分投入品价格具有粘性。长期中，总供给（LRAS）是垂直的，代表经济体的充分就业产出。
The Keynesian AS curve is horizontal at low levels of output, becoming upward sloping and eventually vertical. This implies that during a deep recession, output can increase without upward pressure on the price level.
凯恩斯总供给曲线在低产出水平时呈水平状，随后向上倾斜，最终垂直。这意味着在深度衰退期间，产出可以增加而不给物价水平带来上行压力。
9. Fiscal and Monetary Policy | 财政与货币政策
Fiscal policy involves changes in government spending and taxation to influence economic activity. Expansionary fiscal policy raises spending or cuts taxes to boost AD during a recession.
财政政策涉及改变政府支出和税收以影响经济活动。扩张性财政政策在经济衰退中通过增加支出或减税来提振AD。
Automatic stabilisers, such as progressive income tax and unemployment benefits, work without deliberate government action. In a downturn, tax revenues fall and benefit payments rise, automatically supporting disposable income.
自动稳定器，如累进所得税和失业救济金，无需政府刻意行动即可发挥作用。在经济下行时，税收收入减少而福利支出增加，自动支撑可支配收入。
Monetary policy is conducted by the central bank, using interest rates, quantitative easing, and other tools to control inflation and support growth. A lower base rate tends to encourage borrowing and spending.
货币政策由央行执行，利用利率、量化宽松等工具控制通胀并支持增长。降低基准利率通常能鼓励借贷与消费。
Quantitative easing (QE) involves the central bank purchasing government bonds and other financial assets to inject liquidity into the banking system, aimed at lowering long-term interest rates and stimulating lending when conventional policy is constrained.
量化宽松（QE）指央行购买政府债券和其他金融资产，向银行体系注入流动性，旨在当常规政策受限时压低长期利率并刺激放贷。
10. International Trade and Globalisation | 国际贸易与全球化
Comparative advantage exists when a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country. It forms the core justification for free trade, enabling mutual gains from specialisation and exchange.
当一国生产某种商品的机会成本低于另一国时，就存在比较优势。这是自由贸易的核心依据，使得通过专业化和交换实现互利成为可能。
The terms of trade index measures the ratio of export prices to import prices. An improvement in the terms of trade means a country can buy more imports with a given quantity of exports.
贸易条件指数衡量出口价格与进口价格的比率。贸易条件的改善意味着给定数量的出口可以买到更多进口商品。
The Marshall-Lerner condition states that a depreciation of the exchange rate will improve the current account balance if the sum of the price elasticities of demand for exports and imports is greater than one.
马歇尔-勒纳条件指出，如果出口和进口需求的价格弹性之和大于1，汇率贬值将会改善经常账户收支。
Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of economies through trade, capital flows, and technology. While it can boost growth and efficiency, critics highlight risks such as job displacement and income inequality.
全球化是指通过贸易、资本流动和技术实现的经济体日益融合。虽然它能促进增长与效率，但批评者强调其可能带来岗位流失和收入不平等的风险。
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