📚 Core Knowledge Review for Year 13 WJEC Psychology | WJEC心理学Year 13核心知识点梳理
This guide brings together all the essential content for the Year 13 WJEC Psychology specification. From research methods and biopsychology to social influence, cognitive processes, developmental stages, psychopathology and applied topics like criminal behaviour, every key concept is summarised with clarity. The aim is to provide a structured, bilingual revision resource that helps you consolidate your knowledge and strengthen exam responses.
本指南汇总了 WJEC 心理学 Year 13 的所有核心内容。从研究方法、生物心理学，到社会影响、认知过程、发展阶段、精神病理学以及犯罪行为等应用主题，每个关键概念都进行了清晰的梳理。目标是提供一份结构化的双语复习材料，帮助你巩固知识并提升应试答题能力。
1. Research Methods and Ethics | 研究方法与伦理
Experimental methods involve manipulating an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables. This allows researchers to infer cause and effect relationships.
实验法通过操纵自变量 (IV) 来观察其对因变量 (DV) 的影响，同时控制额外变量。这使得研究者能够推断因果关系。
Quasi-experiments lack full control over the IV, often using naturally occurring differences such as gender or brain injury. They have high ecological validity but lower internal validity compared to true experiments.
准实验无法完全控制自变量，通常利用自然出现的差异，如性别或脑损伤。与真实验相比，它们具有较高的生态效度，但内部效度较低。
Observational techniques range from controlled to naturalistic, and from participant to non-participant. Structured observations use coding schemes to improve reliability, while unstructured observations can capture richer qualitative data.
观察技术包括控制观察与自然观察、参与观察与非参与观察。结构化观察使用编码方案以提高信度，而非结构化观察可以捕捉更丰富的质性数据。
Self-report methods such as questionnaires and interviews gather subjective data. Questionnaires can use closed questions for quantitative analysis or open questions for qualitative insights. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
问卷和访谈等自我报告方法收集主观数据。问卷可采用封闭式问题进行量化分析，或采用开放式问题获取质性见解。访谈可以是结构化、半结构化或非结构化的。
Ethical guidelines from the British Psychological Society (BPS) require informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, debriefing and protection from harm. Cost-benefit analyses help weigh the potential gains of research against ethical risks.
英国心理学会 (BPS) 的伦理准则要求知情同意、退出权、保密、事后说明和免受伤害。成本效益分析有助于权衡研究的潜在收益与伦理风险。
Inferential statistics such as the t-test, Chi-squared, and Spearman' or equal to the chosen significance level, often p ≤ 0.05, to reject the null hypothesis.
推断统计如 t 检验、卡方检验和 Spearman 秩相关系数用于判断结果是否显著。p 值必须小于或等于选定的显著性水平（通常 p ≤ 0.05），才能拒绝零假设。
2. Biopsychology | 生物心理学
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which conveys sensory and motor information. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary functions and splits into sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches.
神经系统分为中枢神经系统 (CNS)，包括脑和脊髓，以及传递感觉和运动信息的外周神经系统 (PNS)。自主神经系统 (ANS) 调节非随意功能，分为交感神经（战斗或逃跑）和副交感神经（休息与消化）分支。
Neurons communicate via electrical impulses and chemical neurotransmitters. Synaptic transmission occurs when neurotransmitter molecules released from the presynaptic terminal cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) increase the likelihood of firing; inhibitory ones (e.g., GABA) reduce it.
神经元通过电冲动和化学神经递质进行通信。突触传递发生在突触前末梢释放的神经递质分子跨越突触间隙并与突触后膜上的受体结合时。兴奋性神经递质（如谷氨酸）增加放电可能性；抑制性神经递质（如 GABA）则降低它。
Hormonal influences are slower but longer-lasting. For example, cortisol is released in response to chronic stress and can impair cognitive function, while oxytocin is linked to social bonding and trust.
激素影响较缓慢但更持久。例如，皮质醇在应对慢性压力时释放，可能损害认知功能；而催产素与社会联结和信任有关。
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation. It has good spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution. Electroencephalography (EEG) records electrical activity with excellent temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution. Post-mortem examinations allow detailed anatomical study but raise ethical concerns.
功能性磁共振成像 (fMRI) 通过检测血氧变化来测量大脑活动。它具有较好的空间分辨率但时间分辨率较差。脑电图 (EEG) 记录电活动，时间分辨率优越但空间分辨率有限。尸检可进行详细的解剖学研究，但引发伦理问题。
Twin studies compare concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins to estimate heritability. Adoption studies disentangle genetic and environmental factors by examining individuals raised apart from biological relatives.
双生子研究比较同卵 (MZ) 和异卵 (DZ) 双胞胎的一致率以估计遗传度。领养研究通过考察远离亲生亲属抚养的个体，来分离遗传与环境因素。
3. Learning Approaches | 学习理论
Classical conditioning, first demonstrated by Pavlov, involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). The CS eventually produces a conditioned response (CR) alone.
经典条件作用由巴甫洛夫首次证实，涉及通过联结进行学习。一个中性刺激在与自然引发无条件反应 (UCR) 的无条件刺激 (UCS) 反复配对后，变为条件刺激 (CS)。CS 最终单独引发条件反应 (CR)。
Key phenomena include extinction (CR disappears when CS is presented without UCS), spontaneous recovery (reappearance of CR after a rest period), stimulus generalisation (similar stimuli yield CR) and discrimination (CR only to the original CS).
关键现象包括消退（当 CS 单独呈现而无 UCS 时，CR 消失）、自发恢复（休息后 CR 重新出现）、刺激泛化（类似刺激也引发 CR）和分化（CR 仅对原始 CS 产生）。
Operant conditioning, developed by Skinner, focuses on consequences. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen behaviour. Punishment, either positive (adding an aversive stimulus) or negative (removing a pleasant one), aims to reduce behaviour.
操作条件作用由斯金纳提出，关注行为的后果。正强化增加愉快刺激以增强行为；负强化移除厌恶刺激以强化行为。惩罚，无论是正惩罚（施加厌恶刺激）还是负惩罚（移除愉快刺激），都旨在减少行为。
Social learning theory (Bandura) emphasises observational learning, modelling, imitation and vicarious reinforcement. It introduces cognitive mediational processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Bandura's Bobo doll studies demonstrated that children imitate aggressive models, especially when the model is rewarded.
社会学习理论（班杜拉）强调观察学习、示范、模仿和替代强化。它引入了认知中介过程：注意、保持、动作再现和动机。班杜拉的波波玩偶实验表明，儿童会模仿攻击性榜样，尤其是当榜样受到奖励时。
4. Social Psychology | 社会心理学
Conformity refers to yielding to group pressure. Asch's line judgment study revealed that about 75% of participants conformed at least once, showing normative social influence (desire to fit in) and informational influence (seeking reality from others). Factors affecting conformity include group size, unanimity and task difficulty.
从众是指屈从于群体压力。阿希的线段判断研究显示，约75%的被试至少从众过一次，表现出规范性社会影响（渴望合群）和信息性影响（从他人那里寻求现实判断）。影响从众的因素包括群体规模、一致性和任务难度。
Obedience involves following direct orders from an authority figure. Milgram's electric shock study found that 65% of participants administered the maximum 450V shock when instructed by an experimenter. Situational factors such as proximity, uniform and authority legitimacy powerfully influence obedience levels.
服从涉及遵循权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆的电击实验发现，65%的被试在实验者指令下施加了最高450V的电击。情境因素如接近性、制服和权威合法性强烈影响服从水平。
Agency theory suggests that in an obedience situation, individuals enter an agentic state, seeing themselves as instruments of another's will, thereby displacing personal responsibility. Legitimacy of the authority system and the absence of rebellious role models strengthen the agentic state.
代理理论认为，在服从情境中，个体进入代理人状态，将自己视为他人意志的工具，从而转移个人责任。权威系统的合法性以及缺少反抗榜样会强化代理人状态。
Prejudice can be explained by realistic conflict theory (Sherif's Robbers Cave), where competition for scarce resources fuels intergroup hostility, and by social identity theory (Tajfel), which posits that in-group favouritism and out-group derogation enhance self-esteem. Reducing prejudice may be achieved through superordinate goals and intergroup contact under optimal conditions.
偏见可以通过现实冲突理论（谢里夫的强盗洞实验）来解释，即对稀缺资源的竞争加剧群体间敌意；也可通过社会认同理论（塔吉费尔）来解释，即内群偏袒和外群贬损提升自尊。减少偏见可通过超级目标以及在最佳条件下的群体间接触来实现。
5. Cognitive Psychology | 认知心理学
The multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin) proposes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information is transferred via attention (to STM) and rehearsal (to LTM). Evidence from the serial position effect and case studies of amnesia (e.g., HM) supports the distinction between STM and LTM.
多贮存模型（阿特金森和希夫林）提出了三个独立的贮存库：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意（进入 STM）和复述（进入 LTM）进行转移。系列位置效应和遗忘症个案（如 HM）的证据支持了 STM 与 LTM 的区分。
The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch) sees STM as an active processor, consisting of the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer. Dual-task studies support domain-specific slave systems, and clinical evidence (e.g., KF) demonstrates separate verbal and visual subsystems.
工作记忆模型（巴德利和希奇）将 STM 视为主动加工器，包括中央执行器、语音回路、视空间画板和情景缓冲器。双任务研究支持特定领域的从属系统，临床证据（如 KF）表明了独立的言语和视觉子系统。
Reconstructive memory theory (Bartlett) highlights that recall is not a passive reproduction but an active reconstruction influenced by schemas. Schemas fill gaps and distort memory to fit cultural expectations. Loftus and Palmer showed that leading questions can alter eyewitness testimony, demonstrating the malleability of memory.
重构记忆理论（巴特莱特）强调，回忆不是被动的重现，而是受图式影响的主动重构。图式填补空白并扭曲记忆以符合文化预期。洛夫特斯和帕尔默的研究表明，引导性问题可以改变目击证词，显示了记忆的可塑性。
Cognitive neuroscience techniques like PET and fMRI have linked specific brain areas to memory processes. The prefrontal cortex is associated with working memory, the hippocampus with consolidating declarative memories, and the cerebellum and basal ganglia with procedural memory.
认知神经科学技术如 PET 和 fMRI 已将特定脑区与记忆过程联系起来。前额叶皮层与工作记忆有关，海马体与陈述性记忆的巩固有关，小脑和基底神经节与程序性记忆有关。
6. Developmental Psychology | 发展心理学
Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment posits that infants have an innate drive to form one primary attachment, typically with their mother. This provides a secure base and an internal working model for future relationships. The critical period is the first two years; failure to form an attachment can lead to irreversible developmental damage.
鲍尔比的依恋单一论认为，婴儿具有形成一种主要依恋（通常是与母亲）的先天驱力。这提供了安全基地和未来关系的内部工作模型。关键期是出生后头两年；若未能形成依恋，可能导致不可逆的发展损害。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation classified attachment into secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant. Cross-cultural research reveals significant variation in attachment styles, though secure attachment appears the most common globally. Meta-analyses suggest that sensitive responsiveness is the strongest predictor of secure attachment.
安斯沃思的陌生情境将依恋分为安全型、不安全-回避型和不安全-反抗型。跨文化研究显示依恋风格存在显著差异，但安全型依恋在全球范围内似乎最常见。元分析表明，敏感反应性是安全依恋的最强预测因子。
Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes four stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years, object permanence), preoperational (2–7 years, egocentrism, animism), concrete operational (7–11 years, conservation, class inclusion) and formal operational (11+ years, abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking). His clinical interview method has been criticised for lacking standardisation.
皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了四个阶段：感知运动阶段（0-2 岁，物体恒存）、前运算阶段（2-7 岁，自我中心、泛灵论）、具体运算阶段（7-11 岁，守恒、类包含）和形式运算阶段（11 岁以上，抽象推理、假设思维）。他的临床访谈法因缺乏标准化而受到批评。
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasises the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) defines what a child can achieve with guidance, and scaffolding refers to the temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable other. Language is the primary tool for thought development.
维果茨基的社会文化理论强调社会互动和文化在认知发展中的作用。最近发展区 (ZPD) 定义了儿童在指导下能达到的水平，而支架式教学指更有知识的人提供的临时支持。语言是思维发展的主要工具。
7. Psychopathology (Schizophrenia) | 精神病理学（精神分裂症）
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterised by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech) and negative symptoms (avolition, affective flattening, alogia). For a diagnosis according to ICD-11, two or more key symptoms must be present for at least one month, with significant functional impairment.
精神分裂症是一种严重的精神障碍，特征为阳性症状（幻觉、妄想、言语紊乱）和阴性症状（意志减退、情感淡漠、言语贫乏）。根据 ICD-11，诊断需出现两个或以上关键症状至少一个月，并伴有显著功能损害。
The dopamine hypothesis suggests that hyperdopaminergia in the mesolimbic pathway underlies positive symptoms, while hypodopaminergia in the mesocortical pathway contributes to negative symptoms. Amphetamine-induced psychosis and the efficacy of dopamine antagonists support this biological explanation.
多巴胺假说提出，中脑边缘通路的多巴胺功能亢进是阳性症状的基础，而中脑皮层通路的多巴胺功能低下导致阴性症状。安非他明诱发精神病和多巴胺拮抗剂的有效性支持了这一生物学解释。
Neural correlates include enlarged ventricles, reduced prefrontal cortex activity (hypofrontality) and grey matter loss. Genetics plays a role, with a concordance rate of about 48% in MZ twins. Candidate genes like COMT and DISC1 have been implicated.
神经相关因素包括脑室扩大、前额叶皮层活动减少（低额叶功能）和灰质丧失。遗传因素起作用，MZ 双胞胎的一致率约为 48%。COMT 和 DISC1 等候选基因被牵涉其中。
Psychological explanations include family dysfunction (double-bind communication, expressed emotion) and cognitive deficits (meta-representation problems, central control dysfunction). Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBTp) helps patients challenge delusions and reduce distress. Antipsychotic medication remains the primary treatment, with typical (haloperidol) and atypical (clozapine, risperidone) options.
心理学解释包括家庭功能失调（双重束缚沟通、情感表达）和认知缺陷（元表征问题、中央控制功能障碍）。认知行为疗法 (CBTp) 帮助患者挑战妄想并减轻痛苦。抗精神病药物仍是主要治疗手段，包括典型（氟哌啶醇）和非典型（氯氮平、利培酮）药物。
8. Criminal Behaviour | 犯罪行为
Biological explanations of crime examine genetic predispositions, which may account for up to 50% of the variance in antisocial behaviour (twin and adoption studies). The MAOA gene (the "warrior gene") is linked to aggressive behaviour when combined with early maltreatment, illustrating a gene–environment interaction.
犯罪的生物学解释研究遗传易感性，它可能解释反社会行为高达 50% 的变异（双生子和领养研究）。MAOA 基因（“战士基因”）在与早期虐待结合时与攻击行为相关，体现了基因-环境交互作用。
Neural explanations focus on prefrontal cortex deficits associated with poor impulse control and amygdala abnormalities linked to fear conditioning failures. Raine et al. (1997) found reduced prefrontal and limbic activity in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity, using PET scans.
神经解释侧重于与冲动控制差有关的前额叶皮层缺陷，以及与恐惧条件化失败有关的杏仁核异常。Raine 等人（1997）使用 PET 扫描发现，因精神失常而作无罪辩护的杀人犯的前额叶和边缘系统活动降低。
Eysenck's personality theory posits that criminals score high on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. High extraversion leads to under-arousal and sensation-seeking; high neuroticism produces emotional instability, making conditioning of conscience difficult.
艾森克的人格理论认为，犯罪者在外向性、神经质和精神质上得分较高。高外向性导致低唤醒和感觉寻求；高神经质产生情绪不稳定，使良心的条件化变得困难。
Cognitive explanations emphasise cognitive distortions such as hostile attribution bias (interpreting ambiguous actions as threatening) and minimalisation (downplaying the severity of offending). Kohlberg's moral reasoning suggests that offenders operate at a lower level (pre-conventional), guided by punishment avoidance rather than internalised ethics.
认知解释强调认知扭曲，如敌意归因偏差（将模糊行为解读为威胁）和最小化（淡化罪行严重性）。科尔伯格的道德推理理论表明，罪犯在较低水平（前习俗水平）运作，受逃避惩罚而非内化伦理的引导。
Restorative justice aims to rehabilitate offenders by bringing them face-to-face with victims to acknowledge harm and agree on reparation. Recidivism data suggest modest but significant reductions, making it a cost-effective complement to custodial sentences.
恢复性司法旨在通过让罪犯与受害者面对面承认伤害并商定赔偿来改造罪犯。再犯率数据显示虽有适度但显著的下降，使其成为监禁刑罚的一个成本效益良好的补充。
9. Controversies in Psychology | 心理学中的争议
The nature–nurture debate questions whether behaviour is determined by innate biological factors or by environmental experiences. Most psychologists adopt an interactionist stance, recognising that genes and environment influence each other, as in epigenetics, where environmental signals can alter gene expression without changing DNA sequence.
先天与后天之争质疑行为是由先天生物因素还是后天环境经验决定的。大多数心理学家采取交互论立场，认识到基因和环境相互影响，如表观遗传学中，环境信号可以在不改变 DNA 序列的情况下改变基因表达。
The free will vs determinism debate considers whether individuals are autonomous decision-makers or whether behaviour is caused by identifiable internal and external forces. Soft determinism (William James) allows for some mental flexibility while acknowledging constraints, contrasting with hard determinism and libertarian free will.
自由意志与决定论之争思考个体是自主决策者，还是行为由可识别的内外部力量导致。软决定论（威廉·詹姆斯）在承认限制的同时允许一定的心理灵活性，与硬决定论和自由意志主义形成对比。
Reductionism versus holism: reductionism breaks down behaviour into simpler components (e.g., biological reductionism to neurotransmitters). Holism argues the whole is greater than the sum of parts, as in humanistic psychology. Levels of explanation (sociocultural, psychological, biological) provide different but complementary lenses.
还原论与整体论：还原论将行为分解为更简单的组成部分（如生物学还原论到神经递质）。整体论主张整体大于部分之和，如人本主义心理学所持观点。解释层次（社会文化、心理、生物）提供了不同但互补的视角。
Ethical implications of research and theory extend to social sensitivity. Studies on racial differences in IQ or genetic explanations for criminality carry risks of perpetuating stereotypes and discriminatory policies. Psychologists must balance scientific inquiry with social responsibility.
研究和理论的伦理影响延伸至社会敏感性。关于种族智商差异或犯罪行为遗传解释的研究，存在固化刻板印象和歧视性政策的风险。心理学家必须在科学探究和社会责任之间找到平衡。
10. Exam Technique Tips | 考试技巧提示
For describe (AO1) questions, provide accurate and detailed knowledge of theories, studies, and concepts. Use key terminology and present information in a logical order. For example, when describing working memory, outline the central executive, slave systems and episodic buffer with their functions.
对于描述性 (AO1) 问题，提供准确而详细的理论、研究和概念知识。使用关键术语并以合理的顺序呈现信息。例如，在描述工作记忆时，概述中央执行器、从属系统和情景缓冲器及其功能。
For evaluate (AO3) questions, construct a balanced argument with strengths and limitations. Link each point to evidence (e.g., supporting study) and issues such as validity, reliability, sampling, ethics, or alternative explanations. Use short paragraphs and connective phrases like "furthermore", "on the other hand" to ensure a coherent line of reasoning.
对于评价性 (AO3) 问题，构建一个包含优点和局限性的平衡论点。将每一点与证据（如支持性研究）以及效度、信度、取样、伦理或替代解释等问题联系起来。使用短段落和“此外”、“另一方面”等连接词，确保推理连贯。
Application (AO2) questions require you to use psychological knowledge to explain scenarios. Identify relevant theories or concepts and explicitly link them to the stem material. For instance, if a scenario describes aggressive outbursts after drinking, relate to the disinhibition effect of alcohol on the limbic system and reduced prefrontal functioning.
应用性 (AO2) 问题要求你用心理学知识解释情境。识别相关的理论或概念，并明确将其与题目材料联系起来。例如，如果一个情境描述了饮酒后的攻击性爆发，要将其与酒精对边缘系统的去抑制效应以及前额叶功能降低联系起来。
Time management is critical. Allocate time proportionally to marks: for a 15-mark essay, plan for 3-4 minutes, write for 18-20 minutes, and check. In an 8-mark application question, spend no more than 10 minutes. Practice past papers under timed conditions to refine your pace.
时间管理至关重要。按分数比例分配时间：对于一篇 15 分的论文，用 3-4 分钟计划，18-20 分钟写作，然后检查。对于 8 分的应用题，不要超过 10 分钟。在计时条件下练习历年真题，以优化答题速度。
Published by TutorHao | Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com
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