📚 Year 13 CIE Philosophy: Key Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | Year 13 CIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering CIE A-Level Philosophy at Year 13 demands a firm grip on a wide range of specialised vocabulary. This guide breaks down the most pivotal terms across epistemology, ethics, philosophy of religion, mind, and logic into bite-sized definitions with memorable cues. Each entry pairs a clear English explanation with a Chinese translation and mnemonic, helping you recall concepts swiftly under exam pressure.
掌握Year 13 CIE A-Level 哲学需要牢牢掌握大量专业词汇。本指南将认识论、伦理学、宗教哲学、心灵哲学和逻辑学中最关键的术语拆解成易于记忆的定义，并配有助记提示。每个条目都是英文说明与中文翻译及记忆法配对，帮助你在考试压力下快速回忆起概念。
1. Epistemology Essentials | 认识论核心术语
A priori knowledge: Knowledge gained independently of sensory experience, such as 'All bachelors are unmarried'. Mnemonic: Think 'prior' to experience — what you can know just by thinking.
先验知识：不依赖于感觉经验而获得的知识，例如“所有单身汉都未婚”。记忆法：想象在经验之“先”——仅凭思考就能知道的东西。
A posteriori knowledge: Knowledge derived from experience or empirical evidence, like 'The sky is blue'. Mnemonic: 'Post' means after — after experiencing it.
后验知识：源自经验或实证证据的知识，如“天空是蓝色的”。记忆法：'Post' 意为“之后”——在经历过之后才知道。
Analytic proposition: A statement true by virtue of the meanings of the words alone, e.g., 'Triangles have three sides'. Mnemonic: 'Analyse' the words and you see the truth.
分析命题：仅凭词语意义即为真的陈述，如“三角形有三条边”。记忆法：“分析”词语本身就能看出其为真。
Synthetic proposition: A statement whose truth depends on how the world is, e.g., 'The cat is on the mat'. Mnemonic: You need to 'synthesise' experience to check it.
综合命题：其真值取决于世界状况的陈述，如“猫在垫子上”。记忆法：你需要“综合”经验来验证它。
Necessary truth: Something that must be true and cannot be false, like '2+2=4'. Mnemonic: Necessarily true in all possible worlds — 'nee-d' not check.
必然真理：必定为真、不可能为假的事物，如“2+2=4”。记忆法：在所有可能世界中都必然为真——无需查证。
Contingent truth: Something that happens to be true but could have been false, e.g., 'I am sitting'. Mnemonic: It 'cont-inges' on circumstances.
偶然真理：恰巧为真但本可能为假的事物，如“我正坐着”。记忆法：它的真假“随（cont-）”情况而定。
2. Rationalism vs. Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism: The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, with innate ideas playing a core role. Think 'ratio' — using reason alone to deduce truths.
理性主义：认为理性是知识的主要来源，天赋观念起核心作用。联想“ratio（比例）”——仅用理性推导真理。
Empiricism: The view that all knowledge comes from sensory experience; the mind is a blank slate at birth. Mnemonic: 'Empirical' sounds like 'experience'.
经验主义：认为一切知识都来自感觉经验；心灵出生时是一块白板。记忆法：'Empirical' 听起来像 'experience'。
Innate ideas: Concepts or knowledge present in the mind from birth, such as Descartes' idea of God. Mnemonic: 'Innate' = 'in' + 'nate' (born with).
天赋观念：心灵中与生俱来的概念或知识，如笛卡尔关于上帝的观念。记忆法：'Innate' 即 'in'（内）+ 'nate'（出生），与生俱来。
Tabula rasa: Latin for 'blank slate'; the empiricist claim that the mind has no innate ideas. Mnemonic: Think of a clean tablet ('tabula') ready to be written on.
白板说：拉丁语“擦净的板”；经验主义主张心灵没有天赋观念。记忆法：想象一块干净的平板（tabula）等待书写。
Sense data: The immediate objects of perception, such as colours, sounds, and smells, as proposed by sense-datum theorists. Mnemonic: 'Data' from the senses.
感觉材料：知觉的直接对象，如颜色、声音和气味，由感觉材料论者提出。记忆法：来自感官的“数据”。
Primary and secondary qualities: Primary qualities (e.g., shape, size) are objective properties of objects; secondary qualities (e.g., colour, taste) depend on the perceiver. Mnemonic: 'Primary' first — what the object 'primarily' is.
第一性质与第二性质：第一性质（如形状、大小）是物体的客观属性；第二性质（如颜色、味道）依赖于感知者。记忆法：“第一”先——物体“原本”是什么。
3. Knowledge and Justification | 知识与证成
Justified true belief (JTB): The traditional definition of knowledge: a person knows P if and only if P is true, they believe P, and they have justification for believing P. Mnemonic: You need all three — a 'JTB tripod'.
被证成的真信念 (JTB)：知识的传统定义：一个人知道P，当且仅当P为真，他们相信P，并且他们有相信P的证成。记忆法：需三者皆备——“JTB三脚架”。
Gettier cases: Counterexamples showing that a justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge, e.g., a lucky guess based on a false premise. Mnemonic: 'Get' a lucky true belief but still miss knowledge.
葛梯尔案例：表明被证成的真信念对知识来说并不充分的反例，例如基于错误前提的幸运猜测。记忆法：“得到”一个幸运的真信念却仍缺失知识。
Reliabilism e : The theory that a belief is justified if produced by a reliable cognitive process. Mnemonic: 'Reliable' process = reliable justification.
可靠主义：一个信念若由可靠的认知过程产生，就是被证成的。记忆法：“可靠的”过程 = 可靠的证成。
Foundationalism: The view that knowledge rests on basic, self-justifying beliefs (foundations). Mnemonic: Like a building — strong foundations support everything.
基础主义：认为知识建立在基本的、自我证成的信念（基础）之上。记忆法：像一座建筑——坚实的地基支撑一切。
Coherentism: The view that beliefs are justified by fitting into a coherent web of beliefs. Mnemonic: 'Cohere' like a spider's web — no single foundation.
融贯主义：认为信念因融入一个融贯的信念网络而被证成。记忆法：如蜘蛛网般“融贯”——没有单一基础。
4. Ethical Theories | 伦理学理论
Utilitarianism: The ethical theory that the right action maximises overall happiness or utility. Mnemonic: 'Utility' + 'arianism' — maximise usefulness/ happiness.
功利主义：认为正确的行为能最大化总体幸福或功用的伦理学理论。记忆法：“功用”+“主义”——最大化有用性/幸福。
Deontology: Duty-based ethics, where actions are right or wrong according to rules, regardless of consequences. Mnemonic: 'Deon' means 'duty' in Greek.
义务论：基于义务的伦理学，行动的对错依据规则，不问后果。记忆法：'Deon' 在希腊语中意为“义务”。
Categorical imperative: Kant's supreme moral principle: act only according to maxims you can will to become universal laws. Mnemonic: 'Categorical' — unconditional command.
定言命令：康德的最高道德原则：只按照你能够意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。记忆法：“定言”——无条件的命令。
Virtue ethics on the character of the moral agent, stressing virtues like courage and honesty. Mnemonic: 'Virtue' = moral excellence, like a hero.
德性伦理学：关注道德主体品格的方法，强调勇气、诚实等德性。记忆法：“德性” = 道德卓越，像英雄一样。
Consequentialism: The broader view that the rightness of actions depends solely on their outcomes. Mnemonic: 'Consequence' is all that matters.
后果主义：一种更宽泛的观点，认为行动的对错完全取决于其后果。记忆法：“后果”才是关键。
5. Meta-Ethics | 元伦理学
Cognitivism: The meta-ethical view that moral judgments express beliefs that can be true or false. Mnemonic: 'Cognise' — moral statements carry cognitive content like facts.
认知主义：元伦理学观点，认为道德判断表达可判真假的信念。记忆法：“认知”——道德陈述像事实一样承载认知内容。
Non-cognitivism: The view that moral utterances do not express factual claims but emotions, prescriptions, or attitudes. Mnemonic: 'Non-cognitive' — not factual, more like 'Boo!' or 'Hooray!'.
非认知主义：认为道德话语不表达事实性主张，而是表达情绪、规定或态度。记忆法：“非认知”——不是事实，更像“嘘！”或“好哇！”。
Moral realism: The view that mind-independent moral facts exist. Mnemonic: Real moral properties 'real-ly' out there.
道德实在论：认为存在独立于心灵的道德事实。记忆法：真实的道德属性“真实地”存在于那里。
Emotivism: A non-cognitivist theory that moral language merely expresses emotions and aims to influence others. Mnemonic: 'Emotion' + 'ism' — I express my feelings.
情绪主义：一种非认知主义理论，认为道德语言只是表达情绪并试图影响他人。记忆法：“情绪”+“主义”——我表达我的感受。
Naturalism (ethical): The view that moral properties are natural properties, like pleasure or well-being, discoverable by observation. Mnemonic: 'Natural' — find morality in nature.
自然主义（伦理学）：认为道德属性是自然属性，如快乐或福祉，可通过观察发现。记忆法：“自然的”——在自然中发现道德。
6. Applied Ethics Concepts | 应用伦理学概念
Principle of double effect: The doctrine that performing a good action may be permissible even if it produces a foreseen but unintended bad effect, provided certain conditions are met. Mnemonic: 'Double' effect — one intended good, one tolerated bad.
双效果原则：若满足特定条件，即使一个善行产生可预见但非意图的恶果，也可能是被允许的。记忆法：“双”效果——一个是意图的好，一个是容忍的坏。
Sanctity of life: The belief that human life is intrinsically valuable and sacred, often grounded in religious convictions. Mnemonic: 'Sanctity' sounds like 'saint' — life is holy.
生命神圣性：认为人类生命具有内在价值和神圣性，常基于宗教信仰。记忆法：'Sanctity' 听起来像 'saint'（圣徒）——生命是神圣的。
Quality of life: An ethical criterion focusing on the well-being and experiential value of a life, often discussed in end-of-life decisions. Mnemonic: 'Quality' over mere existence.
生命质量：一种伦理标准，关注生命的福祉和体验价值，常用于临终决策讨论。记忆法：“质量”重于单纯的存在。
Animal rights: The view that non-human animals possess moral rights and should not suffer unnecessarily. Mnemonic: Rights for animals, not just welfare — think 'animal personhood'.
动物权利：认为非人类动物拥有道德权利，不应遭遇不必要的痛苦。记忆法：动物的权利，而非仅仅是福利——想想“动物人格”。
Euthanasia distinctions: Voluntary, non-voluntary, and involuntary euthanasia, and active vs. passive. Mnemonic: 'Voluntary' = by request; 'active' = act; 'passive' = omission.
安乐死的区分：自愿、非自愿和强制安乐死，以及主动与被动。记忆法：“自愿” = 应请求；“主动” = 行动；“被动” = 不作为。
7. Philosophy of Religion: Arguments | 宗教哲学：论证
Ontological argument: An a priori argument for God' existence, claiming that the very concept of a perfect being entails existence. Mnemonic: 'Onto' = 'being' — argument from the idea of a supreme being.
本体论论证：一个关于神存在的先验论证，主张最完美存在的概念本身就蕴含存在。记忆法：'Onto' = “存在”——从至高存在的观念出发的论证。
Cosmological argument iori argument that traces the universe back to a first cause or necessary being. Mnemonic: 'Cosmos' = universe — start from the cosmos.
宇宙论论证：一个后验论证，追溯宇宙至第一因或必然存在。记忆法：'Cosmos' = 宇宙——从宇宙出发。
Teleological argument (design argument) that the order and complexity in the universe point to an intelligent designer. Mnemonic: 'Telos' = purpose or end — look at the purpose.
目的论论证（设计论证）：认为宇宙的秩序和复杂性指向一个智能设计者的论证。记忆法：'Telos' = 目的或终点——看目的。
Problem of evil: The challenge to belief in an omnipotent, perfectly good God given the existence of evil and suffering. Mnemonic: Can't be all-good, all-powerful, and have this much evil — trilemma.
恶的问题：鉴于恶和苦难的存在，对全能全善之神信仰的挑战。记忆法：不可能既全善、全能，又有这么多恶——三难困境。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God's goodness despite evil, such as the free will defence. Mnemonic: 'Theo' = God + 'dike' = justification — God's defence.
神义论：在恶存在的情况下，为神的良善辩护的尝试，如自由意志辩护。记忆法：'Theo' = 神 + 'dike' = 公义——为神辩护。
8. Religious Language | 宗教语言
Via negativa (apophatic way): The approach that God can only be described by stating what God is not, because God is beyond human comprehension. Mnemonic: Negative way — 'via' negative statements.
否定法（否定神学）：认为只能通过说出神不是什么来描述神，因为神超越人类理解。记忆法：否定的方式——经由否定陈述。
Analogy (Aquinas): The idea that religious language uses analogy, not univocal or equivocal predication; words like 'good' apply to God analogously. Mnemonic: 'Ana-logy' — likeness of proportion.
类比（阿奎那）：认为宗教语言使用类比，而非单义或歧义述谓；如“善”类此地适用于神。记忆法：“类比”——比例的相似。
Verification principle: Ayer's criterion that a statement is meaningful only if it is analytically true or empirically verifiable, dismissing many religious claims. Mnemonic: 'Verify' empirically, or it's meaningless.
可证实性原则：艾耶尔的标准：一个陈述只有分析为真或可在经验上证实时才有意义，拒绝了许多宗教主张。记忆法：“证实”于经验，否则无意义。
Falsification principle (Flew): A statement is meaningful only if conditions are accepted under which it would be false. Religious utterances die a 'death by a thousand qualifications'. Mnemonic: Can you 'falsify' it? If no, no factual claim.
证伪原则（弗卢）：一个陈述只有接受某些条件下它为假时才有意义。宗教话语死于“千般限定”。记忆法：你能“证伪”它吗？不能，则没有事实性主张。
Language game (Wittgenstein): The view that meaning is determined by use within a particular 'form of life'; religious language has its own non-cognitive rules. Mnemonic: 'Game' with its own rules — don't mix with science.
语言游戏（维特根斯坦）：意义由特定“生活形式”中的使用决定；宗教语言有其自身的非认知规则。记忆法：“游戏”有自己的规则——不要与科学的游戏混淆。
9. Mind-Body Dualism | 心灵-身体二元论
Substance dualism: The Cartesian view that mind and body are two distinct substances, res cogitans and res extensa. Mnemonic: Two 'substances' — mind is non-spatial, body is spatial.
实体二元论：笛卡尔的观点，心灵与身体是两种不同的实体，思维实体和广延实体。记忆法：两种“实体”——心灵不占空间，身体占空间。
Property dualism: The view that there is one kind of substance (physical), but mental properties are non-physical. Mnemonic: One substance, two types of 'properties'.
属性二元论：认为只有一种实体（物理的），但心理属性是非物理的。记忆法：一种实体，两种“属性”。
Interactionism: The dualist claim that mind and body causally interact (e.g., decision causes movement). Mnemonic: They 'interact' — mind moves body, body affects mind.
交互作用论：二元论主张心灵与身体之间存在因果交互（如决定引起动作）。记忆法：它们“交互作用”——心推动身，身影响心。
Epiphenomenalism : The view that mental states are caused by physical events but have no causal power themselves. Mnemonic: 'Epi' = upon — consciousness rides on brain states like a shadow.
副现象论：心理状态由物理事件引起，但本身没有任何因果效力。记忆法：'Epi' = 在…之上——意识像影子一样附着于脑状态。
Identity theory : The reductive physicalist claim that mental states are identical to brain states. Mnemonic: Mind = brain, like light = electromagnetic wave.
同一论：还原物理主义主张心理状态等同于脑状态。记忆法：心 = 脑，如同光 = 电磁波。
10. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Hard determinism: The doctrine that every event has a cause, and therefore free will is an illusion. Mnemonic: 'Hard' — tough luck, no freedom.
强硬决定论：每个事件都有原因，因此自由意志是幻觉。记忆法：“硬”——运气差，没有自由。
Soft determinism (compatibilism): The view that determinism is compatible with free will if we understand freedom as acting according to one's desires without coercion. Mnemonic: 'Soft' — freedom can 'softly' coexist with determinism.
温和决定论（相容论）：认为若将自由理解为无强制地按自己欲望行动，决定论与自由意志相容。记忆法：“软”——自由可以“柔和地”与决定论共存。
Libertarianism (metaphysical): The belief that free will is incompatible with determinism and that we do possess free will; some events are uncaused. Mnemonic: 'Liberty' — genuine freedom to do otherwise.
自由意志论（形而上学）：相信自由意志与决定论不相容，且我们确实拥有自由意志；有些事件是无原因的。记忆法：“自由”——真正的相反选择自由。
Agent causation: The idea that agents themselves are the ultimate sources of actions, not events. Mnemonic: 'Agent' causes itself, not a preceding event.
行动者因果：行动者本身是行动的终极来源，而非事件。记忆法：“行动者”自身引起，而非在前事件。
Predestination: The theological doctrine that God has foreordained all events and human salvation. Mnemonic: 'Pre' + 'destination' — path already set.
预定论：神学教义，认为神已预先预定一切事件和人类救恩。记忆法：“预”+“目的地”——路径已定。
11. Key Logical Fallacies | 关键逻辑谬误
Ad hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. Mnemonic: 'To the man' — attack the man, not the claim.
人身攻击：攻击提出论证的人，而非论证本身。记忆法：“针对人”——攻击人而非主张。
Straw man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack. Mnemonic: Set up a 'straw' dummy and knock it down.
稻草人：歪曲对手的论证以便更容易攻击。记忆法：竖立一个“稻草”假人然后击倒它。
False dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist, forcing a choice. Mnemonic: Fake 'either/or', like 'you're either with us or against us'.
假两难：只呈现两个选项而实际存在更多，迫使选择。记忆法：虚假的“非此即彼”，如“你若不是朋友就是敌人”。
Begging the question: An argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. Mnemonic: 'Beg' the question — you circle back to the start.
乞题：在前提中假设了结论的论证。记忆法：“乞求”问题——你绕回起点。
Slippery slope: Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a disastrous chain of events. Mnemonic: 'Slippery' — once you slide, you can't stop.
滑坡谬误：声称一小步将不可避免导致灾难性连锁事件。记忆法：“滑”坡——一旦滑倒，止不住。
12. General Philosophical Terminology | 通用哲学术语
Proposition: The content expressed by a declarative sentence, which can be true or false. Mnemonic: 'Proposal' of fact — can agree or disagree.
命题：由陈述句表达的内容，可判断真假。记忆法：事实的“提议”——可同意或不同意。
Argument: A set of propositions where some (premises) are intended to support another (conclusion). Mnemonic: Not a quarrel — a reasoned case.
论证：一组命题，其中一些（前提）旨在支持另一个（结论）。记忆法：不是吵架——理性的推理论述。
Validity: A property of deductive arguments where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Mnemonic: Valid structure guarantees only the transmission of truth.
有效性：演绎论证的性质，如果前提真，结论必真。记忆法：有效结构只保证真理的传递。
Soundness: A deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises. Mnemonic: 'Sound' = valid + true premises — solid gold.
可靠性：一个有效且前提全真的演绎论证。记忆法：“可靠” = 有效 + 真前提 —— 真
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