📚 Year 13 CIE Politics: Key Terminology Quick-Reference Guide | Year 13 CIE政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key political terminology is essential for success in CIE Year 13 Politics. This guide compiles the most important concepts, ideologies and systems, providing concise English definitions directly followed by Chinese translations to strengthen your cross-linguistic understanding and retention.
掌握关键的政治术语是 CIE Year 13 政治考试取得成功的必备条件。本指南汇编了最重要的概念、意识形态与制度，提供简明的英文定义并紧接中文译文，以加强你的双语理解与记忆。
1. Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性
Power – In political science, power is the capacity to influence, control or coerce the behaviour of others. It can be exercised through force, persuasion or structural dominance, and is a central concept in the study of politics.
权力 – 在政治学中，权力是影响、控制或强制他人行为的能力。它可以通过武力、说服或结构性支配来行使，是政治学研究的核心概念。
Authority – Authority is the legitimate right to exercise power. According to Max Weber, there are three ideal types: traditional authority (based on customs), charismatic authority (based on personal qualities) and legal-rational authority (based on formal rules).
权威 – 权威是行使权力的合法权利。根据韦伯的分类，存在三种理想类型：传统型权威（基于习俗）、魅力型权威（基于个人品质）和法理型权威（基于正式规则）。
Legitimacy – Legitimacy refers to the widespread acceptance that a governing regime has the right to rule. It is often derived from electoral mandates, constitutional arrangements or historical tradition, and is crucial for maintaining political stability without excessive coercion.
合法性 – 合法性指民众对统治体制统治权的普遍认可。它通常源于选举授权、宪法安排或历史传统，对于无需过度强制即可维持政治稳定至关重要。
2. Sovereignty, State and Nation | 主权、国家与民族
Sovereignty – Sovereignty is the supreme legal authority within a given territory. In the modern state system, it implies that no higher power can override the state's decisions; however, globalisation and supranational bodies have eroded absolute sovereignty.
主权 – 主权是指在一特定领土内的最高法律权威。在现代国家体系中，它意味着没有任何更高权力可以推翻国家的决定；然而全球化与超国家机构已侵蚀了绝对主权。
State – A state is a political entity that possesses a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. It is the central actor in international politics.
国家 – 国家是指拥有常住人口、确定领土、政府以及与其他国家建立关系能力的政治实体。它是国际政治中的核心行为体。
Nation – A nation is a group of people who share a common identity, often based on culture, language, history or ethnicity. Unlike the state, a nation does not necessarily possess sovereign territory.
民族 – 民族是一群共享共同认同的人，这种认同通常基于文化、语言、历史或族裔。与国家不同，民族不一定拥有主权领土。
3. Democracy and Representation | 民主与代表制
Democracy – Democracy is a system of government in which supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or through elected representatives. Core features include free elections, political pluralism and the protection of civil liberties.
民主 – 民主是一种将最高权力赋予人民，并由人民直接或通过选举代表行使权力的政府制度。其核心特征包括自由选举、政治多元主义和对公民自由的保护。
Direct democracy – Direct democracy is a form of governance where citizens participate personally in making political decisions, rather than delegating that task to representatives. Referendums and popular initiatives are typical mechanisms.
直接民主 – 直接民主是公民亲自参与作出政治决策，而非将该任务委托给代表的治理形式。公投和民众创制是典型的机制。
Liberal democracy – A liberal democracy combines representative government with the protection of individual rights and freedoms under the rule of law. It typically includes checks and balances, an independent judiciary and a vibrant civil society.
自由民主 – 自由民主将代议制政府与法治下对个人权利和自由的保护相结合。它通常包含制衡、独立的司法机构和活跃的公民社会。
4. Core Liberal Ideas | 自由主义核心理念
Individualism – Liberals place the individual at the heart of their ideology, arguing that each person has intrinsic worth and should be free to pursue their own interests. Society is seen as a collection of autonomous individuals.
个人主义 – 自由主义者将个人置于意识形态的核心，认为每个人具有内在价值，并应自由追求自身利益。社会被视为自主个体的集合。
Liberty – Liberty is a fundamental liberal value. Classical liberals emphasise negative liberty (freedom from interference), while modern liberals advocate positive liberty (the capacity to realise one's potential). Both strands accept that liberty must be compatible with the freedom of others.
自由 – 自由是自由主义的基本价值。古典自由主义者强调消极自由（免于干涉的自由），而现代自由主义者倡导积极自由（实现自身潜能的能力）。两个分支都认为自由必须与他人的自由相容。
Rationalism – Liberals believe in human reason and the power of rational debate. They maintain that progress can be achieved through education, open discussion and the rejection of superstition and tradition that cannot be justified reasonably.
理性主义 – 自由主义者信仰人类理性和理性辩论的力量。他们主张通过教育、公开讨论以及拒绝无法合理辩护的迷信和传统来实现进步。
5. Conservatism and Tradition | 保守主义与传统
Tradition – Conservatives value tradition as the accumulated wisdom of past generations. They argue that long-standing institutions and practices have survived because they work, and radical change risks destroying organic social harmony.
传统 – 保守主义者重视传统，将其视为历代积累的智慧。他们认为历史悠久的制度和实践之所以存续，是因为它们行之有效，而激进变革可能会摧毁有机的社会和谐。
Human imperfection – Conservatism is grounded in a pessimistic view of human nature. Conservatives believe people are limited in their intellectual capacity, morally flawed and driven by base instincts, so perfect societies are unattainable.
人性不完美 – 保守主义立足于对人性悲观的观点。保守主义者认为人的智力有限、道德有缺陷，并受原始本能驱使，因此完美的社会是无法实现的。
Organic society – Conservatives view society as a complex, interdependent whole that evolves naturally, rather than a machine that can be redesigned. The family, community and nation are seen as organs that provide individuals with security and identity.
有机社会 – 保守主义者将社会视为一个自然演化的、复杂的相互依存的整体，而非可重新设计的机器。家庭、社区和民族被视为为个人提供安全感和认同感的器官。
6. Socialism and Equality | 社会主义与平等
Equality – Equality is the central socialist value. Socialists champion not merely legal equality but also equality of outcome or substantial economic equality, believing that vast disparities in wealth undermine genuine freedom and community.
平等 – 平等是社会主义的核心价值。社会主义者不仅主张法律平等，还倡导结果平等或实质经济平等，认为巨大的财富差距会破坏真正的自由与共同体。
Common ownership – Socialists advocate collective ownership of the means of production in order to abolish capitalist exploitation and class divisions. This can range from full state ownership to cooperative or worker-controlled enterprises.
公有制 – 社会主义者主张生产资料归集体所有，以消除资本主义剥削和阶级分化。其形式可从完全的国有制到合作社或工人控制的企业。
Community – Socialists stress the importance of community and cooperation. They hold that human beings are inherently social creatures and that genuine fulfilment comes from working together for the common good, in contrast to competitive individualism.
共同体 – 社会主义者强调共同体与合作的重要性。他们认为人本质上是一种社会生物，真正的满足感源于为共同利益携手合作，这与竞争性的个人主义形成对比。
7. Nationalism and Self-determination | 民族主义与自决
Self-determination – National self-determination is the principle that each nation has the right to govern itself and determine its own political destiny. It was a driving force behind decolonisation and the redrawing of Europe after World War I.
自决 – 民族自决是一项原则，即每个民族都有权管理自身并决定自身的政治命运。它是非殖民化运动和第一次世界大战后欧洲版图重划的驱动力。
Civic nationalism – Civic nationalism defines national membership in terms of citizenship, shared values and political allegiance rather than ethnicity. It is inclusive and open to anyone who subscribes to the nation's political principles.
公民民族主义 – 公民民族主义以公民身份、共同价值观和政治忠诚而非族裔来界定民族成员资格。它具有包容性，对任何认同该民族政治原则的人开放。
Ethnic nationalism – Ethnic nationalism is based on shared ancestry, language, culture and heritage. It tends to be exclusive, as membership is determined by birth, making it harder for outsiders to join the national community.
族裔民族主义 – 族裔民族主义基于共同的祖先、语言、文化和传统。它往往具有排他性，因为成员资格由出身决定，使得外来者较难融入民族共同体。
8. Fascism and Totalitarianism | 法西斯主义与极权主义
Ultra-nationalism – Fascism glorifies the nation as the supreme source of identity and loyalty. It promotes an extreme form of national unity, often demanding that all interests be subordinated to the strength and purity of the nation, and legitimises aggressive expansion.
极端民族主义 – 法西斯主义将民族美化为认同与忠诚的最高来源。它宣扬极端的民族统一，往往要求所有利益都服从于民族的力量与纯洁，并使得侵略扩张正当化。
Totalitarianism – Totalitarianism is a system in which the state penetrates all aspects of public and private life. Fascist regimes used mass propaganda, a single party and secret police to eliminate opposition and enforce ideological conformity.
极权主义 – 极权主义是一种国家渗透公共与私人生活一切方面的体制。法西斯政权运用大规模宣传、单一政党和秘密警察来消灭反对派并强制意识形态上的一致。
Cult of the leader – Fascism centres on an all-powerful leader who embodies the will of the people. Charismatic authority is deliberately manufactured through rallies, media and myths, presenting the leader as infallible and indispensable to the nation.
领袖崇拜 – 法西斯主义以一位全能型领袖为核心，该领袖体现着人民的意志。通过集会、媒体和神话刻意塑造魅力型权威，将领袖描绘成不会犯错且对民族不可或缺。
9. Feminism and Ecologism | 女性主义与生态主义
Patriarchy – Patriarchy refers to a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles of political leadership, moral authority and property control. Feminists argue that patriarchy operates through institutions and cultural norms to subjugate women.
父权制 – 父权制指的是一种男性掌握主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制方面占主导地位的社会制度。女性主义者认为父权制通过制度和文化规范来压迫女性。
The personal is political – This feminist slogan highlights that issues traditionally seen as private – such as domestic work, child care and sexual relations – are in fact structured by power relations and should be subject to political scrutiny and change.
个人即政治 – 这一女性主义口号强调，传统上被视为私密的事务——如家务、育儿和两性关系——实际上都受到权力关系的结构化影响，应当被置于政治审视和变革之下。
Ecocentrism – Ecocentrism is the ecological perspective that places intrinsic value on nature and ecosystems, not merely on their usefulness to humans. It challenges anthropocentrism and advocates for a radical restructuring of the relationship between humankind and the natural world.
生态中心主义 – 生态中心主义是一种生态视角，赋予自然和生态系统以内在价值，而非仅看重其对人类的用处。它挑战人类中心主义，主张彻底重构人类与自然界的关系。
Sustainability – Sustainability is the principle that present development should meet human needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It links economic, social and environmental dimensions and underpins much modern green policy.
可持续性 – 可持续性原则是指当前的发展应满足人类需求，而不损害后代满足其自身需求的能力。它连接了经济、社会和环境维度，是许多现代绿色政策的基础。
10. Electoral Systems | 选举制度
First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) – FPTP is a plurality electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a single-member constituency wins. It tends to produce strong, single-party governments but can lead to disproportional results and wasted votes.
简单多数制 – 简单多数制是一种相对多数选举制度，在单一选区中得票最多的候选人获胜。它往往产生强大的单一政党政府，但可能导致比例失调的结果和废票。
Proportional representation (PR) – PR encompasses a range of electoral systems designed to allocate seats in close proportion to votes won by each party. It increases political diversity and legitimacy but may lead to coalition governments and instability.
比例代表制 – 比例代表制涵盖一系列旨在使席位分配与各政党得票比例紧密匹配的选举制度。它增加了政治多样性和合法性，但可能导致联合政府和不稳定。
Referendum – A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to accept or reject a particular proposal. It is a device of direct democracy often used to legitimise constitutional changes or major policy decisions.
全民公投 – 全民公投是一种由全体选民受邀接受或拒绝某项特定提案的直接投票。它是直接民主的一种工具，常用于使宪法变更或重大政策决策合法化。
11. Pressure Groups and Pluralism | 压力团体与多元主义
Pressure group – A pressure group is an organised body that seeks to influence public policy without seeking official government office. Methods include lobbying, public campaigns, strikes and media engagement. They differ from political parties in that they do not aim to govern.
压力团体 – 压力团体是一种不谋求正式政府职位的、旨在影响公共政策的有组织团体。其方法包括游说、公众运动、罢工和媒体参与。它们与政党的不同在于不以执政为目标。
Insider group – Insider pressure groups enjoy regular, privileged access to decision-makers and are frequently consulted during policy formulation. Their influence relies on expertise, reputation and a willingness to work within established procedures.
内部团体 – 内部压力团体享有与决策者的定期、特权接触渠道，在政策制定过程中经常被咨询。其影响力依赖于专业知识、声誉以及愿意在既有程序中运作的配合态度。
Pluralism – Pluralism is the theory that political power is widely dispersed among many competing groups, ensuring that no single group dominates. A healthy democracy allows all interests to organise and be heard, with the state acting as a neutral arbiter.
多元主义 – 多元主义是一种理论，认为政治权力广泛分散于众多相互竞争的利益集团，确保没有任何单一集团能长期主宰。健康的民主允许所有利益组织起来并得到倾听，国家则充当中立仲裁者。
Elite theory – Elite theory challenges pluralism by arguing that a small, cohesive ruling class – based on wealth, status or organisational advantage – holds real power, and that the masses are largely excluded from significant decision-making.
精英理论 – 精英理论挑战多元主义，主张一个以财富、地位或组织优势为基础的小型、有凝聚力的统治阶级掌握着实权，而大众在很大程度上被排斥于重大决策之外。
12. Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law | 宪政与法治
Rule of law – The rule of law is the principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable under the law. It requires clear, fair and equally enforced laws, and is a safeguard against arbitrary power.
法治 – 法治是一项原则，即所有个人和机构，包括政府，都受法律约束并向法律负责。它要求法律清晰、公平并平等施行，是防止武断权力的保障。
Separation of powers – This doctrine divides government into legislative, executive and judicial branches, each with distinct functions and personnel. It prevents the concentration of power and provides a system of mutual checks, as notably advocated by Montesquieu.
权力分立 – 该学说将政府分为立法、行政和司法三个分支，各有不同的职能和人员。它防止权力集中，并提供一套相互制衡的制度，孟德斯鸠对此尤为倡导。
Judicial review – Judicial review is the power of courts to examine the actions of the executive and legislative branches and determine whether they comply with the constitution. It upholds the rule of law and can invalidate unconstitutional statutes or executive orders.
司法审查 – 司法审查是法院审查行政和立法机关行为并判断其是否符合宪法的权力。它维护法治，并可宣告违宪的法规或行政命令无效。
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