📚 Year 13 CIE Biology: Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | 生物学术语速记指南
Mastering terminology is the fastest route to exam confidence in Year 13 CIE Biology. This guide unpacks the most common A2 terms with memorable explanations, word roots and clever associations so you can recall definitions effortlessly under pressure.
掌握术语是 Year 13 CIE 生物考试快速提分的捷径。本指南拆解了 A2 阶段最高频的术语，配合词根、联想和巧妙记忆法，帮助你在考场高压下毫不费力地回忆起定义。
1. Genetics Terminology | 遗传学术语
Gene: A length of DNA that codes for a specific polypeptide. Think of it as a single recipe in the cookbook of your genome – each gene gives the instructions for one protein.
基因 (Gene)：编码特定多肽的一段 DNA。把它想象成基因组这本“食谱书”里的一张配方 —— 一个基因对应一种蛋白质的指令。
Allele: An alternative form of a gene. 'Allele' sounds like 'alternate' – it is literally an alternate version of the same gene, producing slightly different traits.
等位基因 (Allele)：同一个基因的替代形式。“Allele” 听起来像 “alternate”（交替），它正是同一基因的不同版本，能产生有细微差异的性状。
Locus (plural loci): The fixed physical position of a gene on a chromosome. Link 'locus' with 'location' – it is the gene's address on the DNA.
基因座 (Locus, 复数 loci)：基因在染色体上的固定物理位置。把 “locus” 和 “location” 联系在一起，它就像是基因在 DNA 上的住址。
Homozygous vs Heterozygous: Homo- means 'same', hetero- means 'different'. A homozygous individual carries two identical alleles at a locus; a heterozygous individual carries two different alleles.
纯合子与杂合子 (Homozygous vs Heterozygous)：Homo- 意为“相同”，hetero- 意为“不同”。纯合子在某个基因座上有一对相同的等位基因，而杂合子携带一对不同的等位基因。
Genotype vs Phenotype: 'Genotype' is the genetic makeup (the set of alleles), while 'Phenotype' is the observable characteristic. Remember: 'G'enotype is in the 'G'enes, 'P'henotype is 'P'hysical.
基因型与表型 (Genotype vs Phenotype)：“Genotype” 是遗传组成（等位基因集合），而 “Phenotype” 是可观察的特征。记忆窍门：基因型在基因 (Genes) 中，表型是身体 (Physical) 表现。
Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype, e.g. AB blood type (Iᴬ and Iᴮ alleles both produce antigens).
共显性 (Codominance)：两个等位基因在表型中平等表达，例如 AB 血型（Iᴬ 和 Iᴮ 都产生抗原）。
2. Inheritance Patterns | 遗传模式
Monohybrid cross: A cross involving one gene. 'Mono' uces the classic 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F₂ generation when heterozygotes are crossed.
单基因杂交 (Monohybrid cross)：只涉及一对等位基因的杂交。“Mono” 表示单一。杂合子杂交的 F₂ 代表型比为经典的 3:1。
Dihybrid cross: Involves two unlinked genes. 'Di' = two. The expected F₂ phenotypic ratio for independent assortment is 9:3:3:1.
双基因杂交 (Dihybrid cross)：涉及两对不连锁的基因。“Di” 表示两个。独立分配下 F₂ 的预期表型比为 9:3:3:1。
Linked genes: Genes located close together on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together. Link them in your mind as 'travel buddies' that only separate if crossing over occurs.
连锁基因 (Linked genes)：位于同一染色体上相近位置的基因，倾向于共同遗传。可以将它们想成“旅行搭档”，只在发生交叉互换时才会分开。
Epistasis: One gene masks the expression of another gene. For recessive epistasis, the classic ratio becomes 9:3:4 instead of 9:3:3:1.
上位效应 (Epistasis)：一个基因遮盖另一个基因的表达。隐性上位作用的经典表型比从 9:3:3:1 变成 9:3:4。
Chi-squared (χ²) test: rence between observed and expected results is due to chance. Remember: χ² = Σ (O−E)² / E.
卡方检验 (Chi-squared test)：统计工具，用于判断观察值与期望值之间的差异是否由偶然因素造成。记住公式：χ² = Σ (O−E)² / E。
3. Evolution and Speciation | 进化与物种形成
Natural selection: The process where organisms with advantageous alleles are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on those alleles. Think 'survival of the fittest allele'.
自然选择 (Natural selection)：拥有有利等位基因的个体更容易存活、繁殖并将这些等位基因传递下去。记住“最适合的等位基因会存活”。
Genetic drift: Random change in allele frequency, especially in small populations. Drift suggests floating randomly, unlike selection which is directed.
遗传漂变 (Genetic drift)：等位基因频率的随机变化，在小种群中特别显著。“Drift” 意为漂流，是随机的，与有方向的自然选择不同。
Founder effect and bottleneck: Both are extreme genetic drift events. A founder effect occurs when a few individuals colonise a new area; a bottleneck is a sharp population crash.
奠基者效应与瓶颈效应 (Founder effect and bottleneck)：两者都是极端的遗传漂变事件。奠基者效应发生在少数个体开辟新栖息地时；瓶颈效应是种群数量的急剧锐减。
Allopatric speciation: 'Allo-' = different, 'patric' ountain, river) separates a population, leading to reproductive isolation and new species.
异域物种形成 (Allopatric speciation)：“Allo-” = 不同的，“patric” = 故乡。地理屏障（山脉、河流）分隔种群，导致生殖隔离，最终形成新物种。
Sympatric speciation: 'Sym-' emerge within the same geographical area, often through behavioural or seasonal isolation.
同域物种形成 (Sympatric speciation)：“Sym-” = 共同的。在同一地理区域内部，由于行为或季节性隔离等原因产生新物种。
4. Hardy-Weinberg and Population Genetics | 哈迪-温伯格与种群遗传学
Hardy-Weinberg principle: In a large, randomly mating population with no selection, mutation or migration, allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation. The equations are your best friends:
p + q = 1
p² + 2pq + q² = 1
哈迪-温伯格定律：在一个足够大、随机交配、没有选择、突变和迁入迁出的种群中，等位基因频率和基因型频率世代不变。以下方程是解题利器。
p and q: requency of recessive allele. Remember that p² is homozygous dominant, 2pq is heterozygous and q² is homozygous recessive.
p 与 q：p 表示显性等位基因的频率，q 表示隐性等位基因的频率。记住 p² 是纯合显性，2pq 是杂合子，q² 是纯合隐性。
Using the equations: ency of the recessive phenotype, that equals q². Always calculate q first, then p = 1 − q.
使用方程：若题目给出隐性表型的频率，这就是 q²。务必先算出 q，再用 p = 1 − q 求出 p。
5. Respiration Terminology | 呼吸作用术语
Glycolysis: 'Glyco-' = sugar, 'lysis' wo molecules of pyruvate (3C) in the cytoplasm. Key output: 2 ATP (net) and 2 reduced NAD.
糖酵解 (Glycolysis)：“Glyco-” 意为糖，“lysis” 意为裂解。在细胞质中将葡萄糖（6C）裂解为两个丙酮酸分子（3C）。净生成 2 ATP 和 2 个还原态 NAD。
Link reaction: Pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidised to acetyl CoA, releasing CO₂ and producing reduced NAD. Think of it as the 'bridge' connecting glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.
连接反应 (Link reaction)：丙酮酸经过脱羧和氧化变为乙酰辅酶 A，释放 CO₂ 并产生还原态 NAD。可以看作连接糖酵解与 Krebs 循环的“桥梁”。
Krebs cycle: Acetyl CoA enters a cycle of reactions producing CO₂, reduced NAD, reduced FAD and ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation). The cycle turns twice per glucose.
Krebs 循环：乙酰辅酶 A 进入一轮反应，生成 CO₂、还原态 NAD、还原态 FAD 和 ATP（底物水平磷酸化）。每个葡萄糖分子对应循环两圈。
Oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis: Reduced NAD and FAD donate electrons to the electron transport chain, creating a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Protons flow back through ATP synthase – this is chemiosmosis.
氧化磷酸化与化学渗透：还原态 NAD 和 FAD 将电子传递给电子传递链，在内膜两侧建立起质子梯度。质子通过 ATP 合酶回流 —— 这就是化学渗透。
Anaerobic respiration in mammals: Pyruvate is reduced to lactate, regenerating NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue. This yields only 2 ATP per glucose.
哺乳动物的无氧呼吸：丙酮酸被还原为乳酸，同时再生 NAD⁺ 以维持糖酵解继续进行。每个葡萄糖仅产生 2 ATP。
6. Photosynthesis Terminology | 光合作用术语
Light-dependent reactions: Occur in the thylakoid membranes. Light energy splits water (photolysis), produces ATP (photophosphorylation) and reduces NADP to NADPH.
光反应：发生在类囊体膜上。光能裂解水（光解），生成 ATP（光合磷酸化）并将 NADP 还原为 NADPH。
Photophosphorylation: Cyclic only produces ATP; non-cyclic produces ATP, NADPH and O₂. Remember 'non-cyclic' gives you the full package.
光合磷酸化：环式只生成 ATP；非环式生成 ATP、NADPH 和 O₂。记住“非环式”给你全套产品。
Calvin cycle (light-independent): Takes place in the stroma. CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO, combining with RuBP to form two molecules of GP, which are reduced to TP using ATP and NADPH. TP can regenerate RuBP or form glucose.
Calvin 循环（暗反应）：在基质中进行。RuBisCO 固定 CO₂，CO₂ 与 RuBP 结合生成两个 GP 分子，GP 利用 ATP 和 NADPH 被还原为 TP。TP 可用于再生 RuBP 或合成葡萄糖。
RuBisCO: Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. It can fix O₂ as well as CO₂ (photorespiration), reducing efficiency. Think 'RuBisCO is sometimes confused, wasting energy'.
RuBisCO：核酮糖二磷酸羧化酶/加氧酶。它既能固定 CO₂ 也能固定 O₂（光呼吸），从而降低效率。可以记作“RuBisCO 有时会犯迷糊，浪费能量”。
7. Homeostasis and the Kidney | 体内平衡与肾脏
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment using negative feedback. 'Homeo-' = similar, 'stasis' = standing still.
稳态 (Homeostasis)：通过负反馈维持内环境的稳定。“Homeo-” 意为相似的，“stasis” 意为保持不动。 Published by TutorHao | Year 13 Biology Revision Series | aleveler.com
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