📚 IGCSE WJEC Philosophy: Glossary & Quick Memorisation Guide | IGCSE WJEC 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is essential for success in IGCSE WJEC Philosophy. This guide presents key terms across all core topics, with clear definitions and clever memory tricks to help you recall them under exam pressure. Whether you are tackling epistemology, ethics or the philosophy of religion, these quick memorisation prompts will turn abstract concepts into exam-ready knowledge.
掌握哲学术语是在 IGCSE WJEC 哲学中取得成功的关键。本指南涵盖了所有核心主题的关键术语，配有清晰的定义和巧妙的记忆技巧，帮助你在考试压力下轻松回想。无论你面对的是认识论、伦理学还是宗教哲学，这些速记提示都能将抽象的概念转化为应试利器。
1. Core Concepts & The Nature of Philosophy | 核心概念与哲学的本质
A Priori / A Posteriori: A priori knowledge is independent of experience (e.g. '2+2=4'), while a posteriori knowledge depends on sense experience (e.g. 'It is raining'). Memory trick: 'Prior' to experience you can know it; 'Post' experience you need to check.
先验 / 后验：先验知识独立于经验（如“2+2=4”），后验知识依赖于感官经验（如“正在下雨”）。速记：先于经验可知；需要事后验证。
Analytic / Synthetic: An analytic statement is true by definition (e.g. 'All bachelors are unmarried'); a synthetic statement is true or false depending on factual evidence (e.g. 'The cat is on the mat'). Trick: Analytic = analysis of words; Synthetic = needs synthesis with the world.
分析 / 综合：分析命题凭定义即为真（如“所有单身汉都未婚”）；综合命题的真假取决于事实证据（如“猫在垫子上”）。速记：分析=拆解词义；综合=需要结合世界来判定。
Induction / Deduction: Deduction moves from general premises to a logically certain conclusion; induction draws probable generalisations from specific observations. Trick: Deduction = definite; Induction = inferring, but not watertight.
演绎 / 归纳：演绎从普遍前提推出必然结论；归纳从具体观察得出可能的普遍结论。速记：演绎=必然；归纳=推断，但有缝隙。
2. Logic, Fallacies & Argument Structure | 逻辑、谬误与论证结构
Ad Hominem: This fallacy attacks the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. Remember: 'Ad Hominem = at the man'.
人身攻击：这种谬误攻击提出论证的人，而非论证本身。记住：Ad Hominem = 冲人去。
Begging the Question (Petitio Principii): The conclusion is assumed within the premises; circular reasoning. Trick: The argument 'begs' for its conclusion to be granted from the start.
窃取论点（循环论证）：结论已经在前提中被假定；循环推理。速记：前提“乞求”结论直接成立。
Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent's position to make it easier to attack. Visualise a weak 'straw man' knocked down instead of the real argument.
稻草人：歪曲对方的立场，使其更容易被攻击。想象一个弱不禁风的稻草人被打倒，而非真正的论点。
Valid / Sound: A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises; it is sound if it is valid and all premises are true. Trick: Valid = logical structure works; sound = structure works AND premises true.
有效 / 可靠：一个演绎论证如果结论能从前提逻辑地推出，就是有效的；如果有效且所有前提为真，就是可靠的。速记：有效=逻辑结构没问题；可靠=结构没问题且前提真。
3. Epistemology: Knowledge & Justification | 认识论：知识与辩护
Empiricism: The view that all significant knowledge originates in sense experience. John Locke called the mind a 'tabula rasa' (blank slate). Trick: Empiricism = emphasis on experience.
经验主义：认为一切重要知识都来源于感官经验。洛克将心灵比作“白板”。速记：经验主义=重经验。
Rationalism: The doctrine that reason alone can provide knowledge of reality, independent of sensory experience. Think: Descartes' 'I think therefore I am' is rational insight.
理性主义：主张仅凭理性就能提供关于实在的知识，不依赖感官经验。联想：笛卡尔的“我思故我在”是理性洞见。
Scepticism: The philosophical position that we cannot have certain knowledge. Trick: Sceptics always 'skip' certainty.
怀疑论：认为我们无法获得确切知识的哲学立场。速记：怀疑论者总是“跳过”确定性。
Justified True Belief (JTB): The traditional definition of knowledge: you know that p if you believe p, p is true, and you are justified in believing p. Trick: JTB = Job To Believe truthfully with reason.
被辩护的真信念：知识的传统定义：如果一个人相信p，p为真，并且有理由相信p，那么他知道p。速记：JTB = 有理由的真信念。
4. Metaphysics: Reality & Appearance | 形而上学：实在与表象
Realism: The belief that the world exists independently of our minds and perceptions. Trick: Realism says reality is real.
实在论：相信世界独立于我们的心灵和感知而存在。速记：实在论认为实在就是真的。
Idealism: The metaphysical view that reality is fundamentally mental or constructed by minds. Think: Berkeley's 'esse est percipi' (to be is to be perceived).
唯心论：认为实在本质上是心灵性的，或由心灵建构的形而上学观点。联想：贝克莱的“存在即被感知”。
Substance Dualism: The view that mind and body are two fundamentally different kinds of substance (mental and physical). Trick: Dual = two substances, like oil and water.
实体二元论：认为心灵和身体是两种根本不同的实体（精神与物质）。速记：二元=两种实体，如同油和水。
Materialism: The theory that only physical matter exists and the mind is a product of brain activity. Trick: All that matters is matter.
唯物主义：认为只有物质实存，心灵是大脑活动的产物。速记：只有物质才重要（matter 双关）。
5. Ethics: Theories & Principles | 伦理学：理论与原则
Utilitarianism: The ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure (utility). Jeremy Bentham proposed the 'hedonic calculus'. Trick: 'Utility' = usefulness for happiness; greatest happiness for the greatest number.
功利主义：认为正当行为是能最大化总体幸福或快乐的行为。边沁提出了“快乐计算法”。速记：功用=幸福最大化；最大多数人的最大幸福。
Deontology (Kantian Ethics): Focuses on duty and moral rules; consequences are irrelevant. Kant's Categorical Imperative: act only according to maxims you can will to become universal laws. Trick: 'Deon' = duty in Greek.
义务论（康德伦理学）：关注义务和道德规则；后果无关。康德的定言命令：只依据你愿意其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。速记：希腊语“Deon”=义务。
Virtue Ethics: Aristotle's approach emphasises character and virtues (e.g. courage, honesty) rather than rules or outcomes. The 'doctrine of the mean' states virtue is the middle ground between two vices. Trick: Virtue Ethics asks 'What would a virtuous person do?'
美德伦理学：亚里士多德的方法强调品格和美德（如勇敢、诚实），而非规则或后果。“中道学说”认为美德是两种恶之间的适中。速记：美德伦理学问“有德之人会怎么做？”
Relativism: The view that moral truths are not absolute but vary across cultures or individuals. Remember: Relativism = morality relates to context.
相对主义：认为道德真理并非绝对，而是随文化或个人而改变。记住：相对主义=道德相对语境而定。
6. Philosophy of Religion: Arguments for God's Existence | 宗教哲学：上帝存在的论证
Cosmological Argument: Argues that the existence of the universe demands a first cause or necessary being (God). Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways' include the uncaused cause. Trick: Cosmos = universe; cosmos needs a cause.
宇宙论论证：主张宇宙的存在需要一个第一因或必然存在者（上帝）。阿奎那的“五路”包括无因之因。速记：宇宙需要成因。
Teleological Argument (Design Argument): Infers a designer from the order, purpose and complexity observed in the world (e.g. Paley's watchmaker analogy). Trick: 'Telos' = purpose; design points to a designer.
目的论论证（设计论证）：从世界的秩序、目的和复杂性中推出设计者（如佩利的钟表匠类比）。速记：Telos = 目的；设计指向设计者。
Ontological Argument: Suggests that God's essence implies existence, since God is a being 'than which nothing greater can be conceived' (Anselm). Trick: Ontology = study of being; God's definition includes existence.
本体论论证：认为上帝的本质蕴含存在，因为上帝是“无法设想比之更伟大的存在”（安瑟尔谟）。速记：本体=存在；上帝的定义包含存在。
Faith and Reason: The debate over whether religious belief must be based on evidence and rational argument (evidentialism) or can be grounded in faith alone (fideism). Trick: Fideism = faith is enough.
信仰与理性：争论宗教信仰是否需要基于证据和理性论证（证据主义），还是可以仅凭信仰（信仰主义）。速记：信仰主义=信仰即够。
7. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
Logical Problem of Evil: The inconsistent triad: if God is all-powerful, all-loving and all-knowing, why does evil exist? The existence of any evil seems logically incompatible with such a God. Trick: Three 'omnis' clash with evil.
恶的逻辑问题：不一致的三元组：如果上帝全能、全善、全知，为何存在恶？任何恶的存在似乎与这样的上帝逻辑上不相容。速记：三个“全”与恶冲突。
Theodicies: Attempts to justify God's permission of evil. The free will defence argues that evil results from human misuse of free will, which is a greater good. Trick: Theodicy = 'God's justice' reasoned out.
神义论：试图为上帝允许恶存在提供辩护。自由意志辩护认为，恶源于人类滥用自由意志，而自由意志是更大的善。速记：神义论=为上帝的公义辩解。
Augustinian Theodicy: Evil is a privation of good, not a substance; it came into the world through the fall of angels and humans. Trick: Augus'tine' says evil is not a 'thing'.
奥古斯丁神义论：恶是善的匮乏，而非实体；恶通过天使和人类的堕落进入世界。速记：奥古斯丁说恶不是个“东西”。
Irenaean Theodicy: Evil is part of a soul-making process; suffering helps humans develop into the likeness of God. Trick: Irenaeus = 'ironing' out moral character through suffering.
爱任纽神义论：恶是灵魂塑造过程的一部分；苦难帮助人类成长为上帝的样式。速记：爱任纽=在苦难中“锻造”品格。
8. Mind, Body & Personal Identity | 心灵、身体与人格同一性
Monism: The theory that there is only one kind of substance; for instance, physicalism states everything is physical. Trick: Mono = one; all is one substance.
一元论：认为只有一种实体的理论；例如物理主义声称一切都是物理的。速记：Mono = 一；万物一源。
Cartesian Dualism: Descartes' view of two distinct substances: res cogitans (thinking thing, mind) and res extensa (extended thing, body), interacting through the pineal gland. Trick: Remember 'Car' in Cartesian = two separate vehicles, mind and body.
笛卡尔二元论：笛卡尔的观点，两种不同实体：思之物（心灵）和广延之物（身体），通过松果体交互。速记：笛卡尔的“卡”像两辆车分开，心灵与身体。
Personal Identity: The question of what makes a person the same over time. The physical continuity theory says bodily identity; the psychological continuity theory (Locke) says memory and consciousness link person-stages. Trick: Your 'selfie' (identity) can be body or memory.
人格同一性：探讨是什么使一个人在时间中保持同一。身体连续性理论说身体同一；心理连续性理论（洛克）认为记忆和意识连接不同阶段的人格。速记：你的“自拍照”（身份）可以是身体或记忆。
Bundle Theory: David Hume's view that the self is not a permanent substance but merely a bundle of perceptions, thoughts and sensations. Trick: You are just a 'bundle' of experiences tied together.
束论：休谟的观点，自我不是永恒的实体，而只是一束知觉、思想和感觉的集合。速记：你只是被捆在一起的“一束”经验。
9. Free Will & Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Hard Determinism: The belief that all events, including human actions, are causally determined by prior events, so free will is an illusion. Trick: Hard = no way out; every action locked in place.
强硬决定论：相信一切事件，包括人类行为，都由先前事件因果决定，因此自由意志是错觉。速记：强硬=没有出路；每个行动都被锁死。
Libertarianism (Free Will): The view that humans do have genuine free will, and determinism is false. Some appeal to agent causation. Trick: Liberty = freedom; we are truly free to choose.
自由意志论：认为人类确实拥有真正的自由意志，决定论为假。有些诉诸行为者因果。速记：自由=真正的选择。
Compatibilism (Soft Determinism): The position that free will and determinism are compatible. A free action is one caused by your own desires without external coercion, even if those desires are determined. Trick: Compatible = they 'fit' together; freedom is acting on your own determined motives.
相容论（温和决定论）：认为自由意志与决定论相容。一个自由的行为是由你自己的欲望引起且没有外在强制，即使这些欲望是被决定的。速记：相容=它们能共存；自由是按照自己被决定的动机行动。
Moral Responsibility: The concept that we can be praised or blamed only if our actions are genuinely free. Determinists struggle to justify punishment if everyone is just a cog in a causal machine. Trick: No freedom, no blame.
道德责任：只有我们的行为是真正自由的，才能被赞扬或责备。决定论者难以为惩罚辩护，若每个人只是因果机器中的齿轮。速记：没有自由，就没有责罚。
10. Political Philosophy: Justice & Society | 政治哲学：正义与社会
Social Contract: The theory that individuals consent, explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some freedoms and submit to authority in exchange for protection of their remaining rights. Thinkers: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau. Trick: A 'contract' society signs for security.
社会契约：个人明示或默示同意放弃部分自由并服从权威，以换取对其剩余权利的保护。代表人物：霍布斯、洛克、卢梭。速记：社会签“契约”求安全。
Utilitarian Justice: Justice is about maximising overall welfare. Laws and institutions are just if they produce the greatest good for the greatest number. Trick: Justice as a happiness calculator.
功利主义正义：正义在于最大化总体福利。如果法律和制度能为最大多数人带来最大善，它们就是正义的。速记：正义像个幸福计算器。
Distributive Justice: Concerns the fair allocation of resources. Rawls' 'veil of ignorance' thought experiment leads to two principles, including the difference principle which allows inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged. Trick: 'Rawls' reminds you of 'rules' you'd choose blind.
分配正义：关注资源的公平分配。罗尔斯的“无知之幕”思想实验导出两条原则，包括差异原则：不平等只有在对最不利者有利时才被允许。速记：Rawls 如 rules（规则），盲选规则。
Rights: Moral or legal entitlements to act or be treated in certain ways. Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering; positive rights require others to provide goods or services. Trick: Negative = 'hands off'; positive = 'hands on' help.
权利：以特定方式行动或被对待的道德或法律资格。消极权要求他人不干涉；积极权要求他人提供物品或服务。速记：消极=“别碰”；积极=“动手”帮助。
11. The Self & the World: Appearance vs. Reality | 自我与世界：表象与实在
Plato's Forms: Plato argued that the physical world is a shadow of the true reality: the World of Forms, which holds perfect, eternal ideas like Justice and Beauty. Trick: Forms are the perfect 'moulds' for physical copies.
柏拉图的理型：柏拉图认为物理世界只是真实实在——理型世界的影子；理型世界存有完美、永恒的理型，如正义和美。速记：理型是物理摹本的完美“模具”。
Allegory of the Cave: Plato's illustration of the journey from ignorance to knowledge; prisoners see shadows on a cave wall, mistaking them for reality. Trick: Cave = shadow shows not the real thing.
洞穴寓言：柏拉图对从无知到知识的历程的描绘；囚徒看见洞穴墙上的影子，误以为那就是实在。速记：洞中影非真物。
Phenomena / Noumena: Immanuel Kant distinguished between phenomena (the world as it appears to us, shaped by our senses and categories) and noumena (things-in-themselves, which we can never know). Trick: Phenomena = 'phone screen' we see; noumena = 'no' direct access.
现象 / 物自体：康德区分现象（世界向我们显现的样子，被感官和范畴塑造）和物自体（事物自身，我们永远无法认识）。速记：现象=手机屏幕可见；物自体=无法直接触及。
12. Applied Ethics & Contemporary Issues | 应用伦理学与当代议题
Situation Ethics: Joseph Fletcher's approach that the only absolute rule is agape (selfless, unconditional love), and moral decisions are made situationally to serve that love. Trick: Just ask 'What is the most loving thing?'
境遇伦理学：约瑟夫·弗莱彻的方法，唯一绝对的规则是圣爱（无私、无条件的爱），道德决策依据具体情况以服务爱为目的。速记：只需问“最有爱心的是什么？”
Sanctity of Life: The principle that human life is sacred and valuable in itself, often rooted in religious belief; used in debates on abortion and euthanasia. Trick: Sanctity = sacred and untouchable.
生命神圣性：人类生命本身是神圣且有价值的原则，常植根于宗教信仰；用于堕胎和安乐死辩论。速记：神圣=不可侵犯。
Quality of Life: The approach that the moral value of a life depends on its capacity for experience, pleasure, autonomy and meaningful connections. Trick: Quality over mere existence.
生命质量：认为生命的道德价值取决于其体验、快乐、自主和有意义联系的能力。速记：质量优于单纯存活。
Environmental Ethics: Examines the moral relationship between humans and the environment. Deep ecology argues that nature has intrinsic value, not merely instrumental value for humans. Trick: Deep ecology = value deep within nature, not just for us.
环境伦理学：审视人类与环境之间的道德关系。深层生态学主张自然拥有内在价值，而不仅仅是对人类的工具价值。速记：深层生态=价值深藏于自然，非仅供人类。
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