📚 OCR A-Level Politics Terminology Quick Guide | OCR A-Level 政治学术语速记指南
Mastering political terminology is essential for success in Year 13 OCR Politics. This guide breaks down key terms across the UK government, US politics, and core ideologies into clear, bilingual explanations. Use it as a quick reference to strengthen your essay vocabulary and tackle short-answer definitions with confidence.
掌握政治学术语是 Year 13 OCR 政治考试成功的关键。本指南将英国政府、美国政治和核心意识形态中的关键术语分解为中英双语清晰解释，可作为快速参考，帮助你强化论文词汇，从容应对简答题中的定义题。
1. UK Constitution | 英国宪法
A constitution sets out the fundamental principles of a state. The UK has an uncodified constitution, meaning it is not written in a single document but derives from statute law, common law, conventions, works of authority, and EU retained law (though EU law now plays a diminished role).
宪法确立了国家的基本原则。英国拥有一部不成文宪法，这意味着它并非以单一文件形式存在，而是来源于成文法、普通法、惯例、权威著作和保留的欧盟法律（尽管欧盟法律的作用现已减弱）。
- Parliamentary sovereignty – The principle that Parliament can make, amend, or repeal any law, and no body can override it. | 议会主权——议会可以制定、修改或废除任何法律，且没有任何机构可以凌驾于其上的原则。
- Rule of law – Everyone, including the government, is subject to the law and equal before it. | 法治——包括政府在内的所有人均受法律约束，法律面前人人平等。
- Fusion of powers – The executive sits within the legislature in the UK, unlike the separate branches in the US. | 权力融合——英国行政机构与立法机构相互融合，与美国的权力分立不同。
- Devolution – The transfer of certain powers from central government to regional bodies, e.g. Scottish Parliament. | 权力下放——中央政府将特定权力移交给地区机构，如苏格兰议会。
2. Parliament | 议会
The UK Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The Commons is elected and sovereign; the Lords is appointed and acts as a revising chamber. Understanding the functions – legislation, scrutiny, representation, and debate – is crucial for analysis questions.
英国议会实行两院制，由下议院和上议院组成。下议院经选举产生，拥有主权；上议院由任命产生，充当审查修正院。理解其立法、审查、代表和辩论四大职能对分析题至关重要。
- Whip – An MP responsible for party discipline and ensuring members vote according to the party line. | 党鞭——负责党纪、确保党员按照党派路线投票的议员。
- Backbencher – An MP not holding a ministerial or shadow ministerial role. | 后座议员——未担任部长或影子部长职务的议员。
- Public bill committee – A temporary committee that examines the details of a proposed law. | 公共法案委员会——负责审查法案细节的临时委员会。
- Salisbury Convention – The Lords will not oppose a bill that fulfils a government's manifesto commitment. | 索尔兹伯里惯例——上议院不会反对实现政府竞选宣言承诺的法案。
3. Prime Minister & Cabinet | 首相与内阁
The executive branch in the UK is led by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. While the PM is first among equals, their powers depend on factors like parliamentary majority, public opinion, and cabinet unity. Cabinet government implies collective decision-making, though prime ministerial dominance is often debated.
英国行政部门由首相和内阁领导。首相虽为“同侪之首”，但其权力取决于议会多数、民意和内阁团结等因素。内阁政府意味着集体决策，但首相主导地位经常受到讨论。
- Collective ministerial responsibility – All cabinet ministers must publicly support government policy or resign. | 集体部长责任制——所有内阁大臣必须公开支持政府政策，否则辞职。
- Individual ministerial responsibility – Ministers are accountable for their own and their department's actions. | 个人部长责任制——部长对自己及其部门的行为负责。
- Spatial leadership – A PM who delegates and allows ministers autonomy, e.g. Cameron's early style. | 空间式领导——首相放权，允许大臣自治的风格，如卡梅伦早期的做法。
- Secret garden of No. 10 – The informal network of advisers and special consultants around the PM. | 唐宁街10号的神秘花园——围绕首相的非正式顾问和特别幕僚网络。
4. US Congress | 美国国会
Congress is the legislative branch of the US federal government, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. Its enumerated powers include passing laws, controlling the budget, and declaring war. The concept of a 'broken branch' often appears in essays about gridlock and partisanship.
国会是美国联邦政府的立法分支，由众议院和参议院组成。其列举权力包括通过法律、控制预算和宣战。关于“失灵的分支”这一概念常出现在讨论僵局和党派极化的论文中。
- Bicameralism – The division of a legislature into two chambers, each with different powers. | 两院制——立法机构分为两个议院，各自拥有不同权力。
- Filibuster – A tactic in the Senate to delay or block a vote by extending debate, requiring 60 votes to end. | “冗长辩论”——参议院通过延长辩论来拖延或阻止投票的战术，需60票才能终结。
- Conference committee – A temporary panel formed to reconcile differences in House and Senate bills. | 协商委员会——为调和众议院和参议院法案差异而设立的临时委员会。
- Implied powers – Powers derived from the 'necessary and proper' clause, expanding Congressional authority beyond those explicitly stated. | 默示权力——源于“必要和适当条款”的权力，扩大了国会明确列举之外的权利。
5. US Presidency | 美国总统
The president is both head of state and head of government, but their power is constrained by checks and balances. Key concepts like the 'imperial presidency' and the 'imperilled presidency' help evaluate presidential effectiveness. The power to persuade is often more important than formal constitutional powers.
总统既是国家元首又是政府首脑，但其权力受到制衡机制的约束。“帝王式总统”和“受困总统”等关键概念有助于评估总统效力。在现实中，说服力往往比正式的宪法权力更为重要。
- Veto power – The president can reject a bill passed by Congress; a veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both chambers. | 否决权——总统可拒签国会通过的法案；两院三分之二多数可推翻否决。
- Executive order – A directive issued by the president that has the force of law without congressional approval. | 行政命令——总统发布的具有法律效力的指令，无需国会批准。
- Power of the purse – Congress controls federal spending, which limits presidential ambitions. | 财政权——国会控制联邦开支，限制了总统的宏大计划。
- Cabinet – An advisory body of appointed departmental secretaries, not mentioned in the Constitution. | 内阁——由任命产生的部级部长组成的咨询机构，宪法中并未提及。
6. US Federalism | 美国联邦制
Federalism divides power between the national government and the states. The relationship has evolved from dual federalism (layer cake) to cooperative federalism (marble cake), and now to a more complex interplay involving unfunded mandates and block grants. The Supreme Court often acts as an umpire.
联邦制将权力在国家政府和各州之间划分。这种关系从二元联邦制（“夹层蛋糕”）演变为合作联邦制（“大理石花纹蛋糕”），再到如今涉及未拨款指令和整笔拨款的更复杂互动。最高法院常充当仲裁者角色。
- Enumerated powers – Powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the Constitution. | 列举权力——宪法明确授予联邦政府的权力。
- Reserved powers – Powers retained by the states under the 10th Amendment. | 保留权力——根据第十修正案由各州保留的权力。
- Concurrent powers – Powers shared by both federal and state governments, e.g. taxation. | 共享权力——联邦和州政府共同享有的权力，如征税。
- Unfunded mandate – A federal requirement that states must comply with without receiving additional funding. | 未拨款指令——联邦政府要求各州遵守但未提供额外资金的规定。
7. Liberalism | 自由主义
Liberalism prioritises individual freedom, limited government, and rationalism. Classical liberalism champions negative freedom and laissez-faire economics, while modern liberalism embraces an enabling state and positive freedom. Key thinkers include John Locke, John Stuart Mill, and John Rawls.
自由主义优先考虑个人自由、有限政府和理性主义。古典自由主义捍卫消极自由和自由放任经济，而现代自由主义则支持赋能型国家和积极自由。关键思想家包括约翰·洛克、约翰·斯图亚特·密尔和约翰·罗尔斯。
- Social contract – The idea that individuals cede some freedom to the state for protection and order (Locke). | 社会契约——个人让渡部分自由以换取国家保护与秩序的理念（洛克）。
- Harm principle – Mill’s concept that the state should only interfere to prevent harm to others. | 伤害原则——密尔提出的概念，即国家只有为了防止伤害他人时才能干预。
- Veil of ignorance – Rawls’ thought experiment to design a just society without knowing one’s own place in it. | 无知之幕——罗尔斯设想的在不知自身社会位置的情况下设计公正社会的思想实验。
- Enabling state – A modern liberal view that the state should provide opportunities to allow individuals to flourish. | 赋能型国家——现代自由主义观点，认为国家应提供机会让个人得以发展。
8. Conservatism | 保守主义
Conservatism stresses tradition, organic society, and human imperfection. From Burke's pragmatic One Nation conservatism to the New Right's combination of economic liberalism and social authoritarianism, this ideology is diverse. Key themes include authority, hierarchy, and the argument for change to conserve.
保守主义强调传统、有机社会和人性不完美。从柏克务实的一国保守主义到新右翼将经济自由主义与社会威权主义相结合的路线，这一意识形态十分多样。核心主题包括权威、等级制度和为保守而变革的理念。
- Organic society – The conservative view that society is a natural, living entity that changes gradually, like a plant. | 有机社会——保守主义者认为社会是一个自然的、渐变的生命体，如同植物一般。
- Human imperfection – The belief that people are imperfect, morally flawed, and need the security of tradition. | 人性不完美——认为人类是不完美的、有道德缺陷的，需要传统的安全感。
- Atomism – A term New Right thinkers criticise; the belief that society is just a collection of self-interested individuals. | 原子主义——新右翼思想家批评的术语；认为社会仅仅是自利个体的集合。
- Anomie – A state of normlessness caused by the weakening of traditional community ties (a concern of traditional conservatism). | 失范——因传统社区纽带削弱而导致的无规范状态（传统保守主义所担忧的）。
9. Socialism | 社会主义
Socialism advocates for common ownership, equality, and social justice. Revolutionary socialism seeks a complete overthrow of capitalism, while social democracy works within the system to humanise it. Understanding the split between fundamentalist and revisionist traditions is essential.
社会主义倡导公有制、平等和社会正义。革命社会主义寻求彻底推翻资本主义，而社会民主主义则在体制内运作，使其更人性化。理解原教旨主义与修正主义传统之间的分裂至关重要。
- Common ownership – The means of production should be owned collectively, not privately, to prevent exploitation. | 公有制——生产资料应集体拥有而非私有，以防止剥削。
- Dialectical materialism – Marx’s theory that historical change arises from material and economic class struggles. | 辩证唯物主义——马克思关于历史变革源于物质和经济阶级冲突的理论。
- Surplus value – The difference between a worker’s wages and the value of goods produced, which Marx argued is seized by capitalists. | 剩余价值——工人工资与其所生产商品价值之间的差额，马克思认为这被资本家攫取了。
- Social justice – Often associated with equality of outcome, not merely equality of opportunity. | 社会正义——通常与结果平等而非仅仅是机会平等相关。
10. Feminism | 女权主义
Feminism is a political ideology that challenges patriarchy and seeks to understand and end gender-based inequality. Liberal feminism focuses on legal and political reform, while radical feminism argues that patriarchy is the fundamental division in society, and socialist feminism links gender oppression to capitalism.
女权主义是一种挑战父权制并寻求理解与终结性别不平等的政治意识形态。自由主义女权主义专注于法律和政治改革，激进女权主义则认为父权制是社会的根本分裂，而社会主义女权主义将性别压迫与资本主义相联系。
- Patriarchy – A system where men dominate political, economic, and social life, often through institutional structures. | 父权制——男性通过制度结构主导政治、经济和社会生活的体系。
- Intersectionality – The interconnected nature of social categories like gender, race, and class, creating overlapping systems of discrimination. | 交叉性——性别、种族和阶级等社会范畴相互联系，形成重叠的歧视体系。
- Otherness – De Beauvoir’s idea that women are defined as the 'other' relative to the male norm. | 他者性——波伏娃的理念，即女性相对于男性规范被定义为“他者”。
- Personal is political – A radical feminist slogan asserting that personal experiences (family, housework) are rooted in political structures. | 个人的即政治的——激进女权主义口号，主张个人经历（家庭、家务）植根于政治结构。
11. Elections & Referendums | 选举与公投
Electoral systems determine how votes translate into seats. The UK uses First Past the Post for general elections, while devolved bodies use proportional systems. Referendums provide direct democracy but raise questions about parliamentary sovereignty and the tyranny of the majority.
选举制度决定选票如何转化为席位。英国大选采用简单多数当选制，分权机构则采用比例代表制。公投提供了直接民主，但也引发了关于议会主权和多数暴政的问题。
- First Past the Post (FPTP) – An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins. | 简单多数当选制——每个选区得票最多的候选人获胜的选举制度。
- Referendum – A direct vote by the electorate on a specific issue. | 公投——选民就特定议题进行的直接投票。
- Spoiler candidate – A minor candidate whose presence splits the vote of a major candidate, affecting the outcome. | 搅局候选人——其参选分散了主要候选人选票，从而影响结果的小党派候选人。
- Participation crisis – The decline in voter turnout and party membership, signalling democratic disengagement. | 参与危机——投票率和政党成员身份的下降，表明民主疏离。
12. The Judiciary & Civil Liberties | 司法机构与公民自由
The judiciary interprets and applies the law, and in the UK, it can review the legality of ministerial actions (judicial review). Since the Human Rights Act 1998, judges have gained a more prominent role, leading to debates over whether they are becoming too politicised. In the US, the Supreme Court is an equal branch with the power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison.
司法机构解释和适用法律；在英国，法院可以审查大臣行为的合法性（司法审查）。自1998年《人权法案》以来，法官的角色更加突出，引发了关于他们是否过度政治化的争议。在美国，最高法院是平等的分支，其司法审查权确立于马伯里诉麦迪逊案。
- Judicial review – The power of courts to assess the actions of the executive and declare them ultra vires (beyond legal authority). | 司法审查——法院评估行政行为并宣布其越权的权力。
- Ultra vires – A Latin term meaning 'beyond the powers', used when an authority has acted illegally. | 越权——拉丁语，意为“超越权力”，用于指机构行为违法时。
- Stare decisis – The US doctrine of precedent, meaning courts should follow previous rulings. | 遵循先例——美国的先例原则，即法院应当遵循之前的判决。
- Civil liberties vs civil rights – Liberties protect the individual from state action; rights ensure equal treatment and active state protection. | 公民自由对比公民权利——自由保护个人免受国家行为侵害；权利确保平等待遇与国家的主动保护。
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