📚 Core Knowledge Points of IGCSE WJEC Psychology | IGCSE WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This article provides a structured revision guide covering the essential topics in the IGCSE WJEC Psychology specification. We examine research methods, biological, cognitive, social, developmental, and individual differences approaches, together with key debates and ethical principles.
本文为 IGCSE WJEC 心理学课程提供系统的复习指南，涵盖研究方法、生物学、认知、社会、发展和个体差异取向，以及关键争议与伦理原则。
1. Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学研究方法
In an experiment, researchers manipulate an independent variable (IV) to measure its effect on a dependent variable (DV) while keeping extraneous variables constant.
在实验中，研究者操纵自变量 (IV) 以测量其对因变量 (DV) 的影响，同时保持额外变量恒定。
Laboratory experiments offer high control and can establish cause–effect relationships, but they may lack ecological validity due to artificial settings.
实验室实验控制程度高，可建立因果关系，但由于环境人为，可能缺乏生态效度。
Field experiments manipulate the IV in a natural environment, increasing mundane realism but reducing control over confounding variables.
现场实验在自然环境中操纵自变量，提高了日常真实性，但降低了对混淆变量的控制。
Observational designs record behaviour without direct manipulation; categories of behaviour must be clearly operationalised to ensure inter-observer reliability.
观察设计在不直接操纵的情况下记录行为；行为类别必须明确操作化，以确保观察者间信度。
Correlational studies measure the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables, but they cannot infer causation.
相关研究测量两个共变量之间关系的强度和方向，但不能推断因果关系。
Ethical guidelines from the BPS require informed consent, protection from harm, the right to withdraw, confidentiality, and a full debrief after any deception.
英国心理学会的伦理准则要求知情同意、避免伤害、有权退出、保密，以及在欺瞒后进行充分的事后解释。
2. Biological Psychology: Brain and Behaviour | 生物心理学：大脑与行为
Neurons transmit information using electrical impulses (action potentials) that travel along the axon and trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.
神经元借助沿轴突传导的电冲动（动作电位）传递信息，并触发神经递质释放到突触中。
Excitatory neurotransmitters such as dopamine increase the likelihood of firing, whereas inhibitory ones like GABA reduce it; imbalances are linked to mental illness.
兴奋性神经递质如多巴胺增加发放概率，抑制性递质如 GABA 则降低发放概率；失衡与心理疾病有关。
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) detects changes in blood oxygenation, helping to map brain areas active during specific cognitive tasks.
功能性磁共振成像 (fMRI) 检测血氧变化，有助于绘制特定认知任务期间活跃的脑区。
Broca's area, located in the left frontal lobe, is crucial for speech production, while Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe supports language comprehension.
布罗卡区位于左侧额叶，对言语产出至关重要；韦尼克区位于颞叶，支持语言理解。
The autonomic nervous system comprises the sympathetic division, which activates fight-or-flight, and the parasympathetic division, which restores rest-and-digest states.
自主神经系统包括交感分支（激活战或逃反应）和副交感分支（恢复休息与消化状态）。
3. Cognitive Psychology: Memory Models | 认知心理学：记忆模型
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM), with attention and rehearsal transferring information.
多存储模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) 描述了三个独立的存储器：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)，通过注意和复述传递信息。
STM has a limited capacity of 7 ± 2 items and a duration of around 18–30 seconds without rehearsal, whereas LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
短时记忆容量有限，为 7 ± 2 个项目，不进行复述时持续约 18–30 秒；长时记忆容量和持续时间可能是无限的。
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) replaces the concept of a unitary STM with the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
工作记忆模型 (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) 用中央执行器、语音环路、视空间画板和情节缓冲器取代了单一短时记忆的概念。
Interference theory explains forgetting in LTM as being due to proactive interference (old learning disrupts new) or retroactive interference (new learning disrupts old).
干扰理论将长时记忆遗忘解释为前摄干扰（旧学习干扰新学习）或倒摄干扰（新学习干扰旧学习）。
Eyewitness testimony can be distorted by leading questions and post-event information, as shown in Loftus and Palmer's (1974) car accident study using the verbs 'smashed' and 'hit'.
目击者证词可能被引导性问题和事后信息扭曲，Loftus 和 Palmer (1974) 使用动词“撞碎”与“碰撞”的车祸研究证明了这一点。
4. Cognitive Psychology: Perception and Illusions | 认知心理学：知觉与错觉
Gibson's direct theory argues that perception is innate and relies on affordances and the optic array, with no need for internal processing.
吉布森的直接知觉理论认为知觉是天生的，依赖于可利用性和光阵列，无需内部加工。
Gregory's constructivist theory proposes that perception is an active process in which the brain uses past experience and hypotheses to interpret ambiguous sensory data.
格雷戈里的建构理论提出，知觉是一个主动过程，大脑利用过去经验和假设来解释模糊的感觉数据。
Visual illusions such as the Ponzo and Müller-Lyer illusions provide evidence for learned size constancy and misapplication of depth cues.
视觉错觉如庞佐错觉和缪勒-莱尔错觉为习得的大小恒常性以及深度线索的误用提供了证据。
Monocular depth cues include linear perspective, relative size, occlusion, and texture gradient, and these can be found in two-dimensional artworks.
单眼深度线索包括线条透视、相对大小、遮挡和纹理梯度，这些都可以在二维艺术作品中找到。
5. Social Psychology: Conformity and Obedience | 社会心理学：从众与服从
Asch (1951) found that about 37% of critical trials produced conformity when participants were asked to match line lengths in the presence of confederates who gave wrong answers.
Asch (1951) 发现，当参与者在给出错误答案的假被试面前进行线段匹配时，大约 37% 的关键试次产生了从众行为。
Normative social influence occurs when individuals conform to be accepted by the group, whereas informational social influence occurs when they believe the group is correct.
当个体为被群体接纳而从众时，发生的是规范社会影响；当他们相信群体是正确的时，则发生信息社会影响。
Milgram's (1963) obedience study showed that 65% of participants continued to administer the maximum 450-volt shock to a learner under the instruction of an authority figure.
Milgram (1963) 的服从实验表明，65% 的参与者在权威人物的指令下继续对学习者施加最高 450 伏的电击。
Situational factors such as the proximity of the authority figure, the prestige of the setting, and the presence of disobedient peers strongly influence obedience levels.
情境因素如权威人物的接近性、环境的声望以及出现不服从的同伴，会强烈影响服从水平。
Social learning theory (Bandura, 1961) demonstrated that children imitate aggressive models, especially when the model is rewarded, highlighting vicarious reinforcement.
社会学习理论 (Bandura, 1961) 证明儿童会模仿攻击性榜样，尤其是当榜样得到奖励时，突显了替代强化的作用。
6. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Bowlby's monotropic theory suggests that infants have an innate drive to form one primary attachment, and that this bond serves as a prototype for future relationships—the internal working model.
鲍尔比的单调依恋理论认为，婴儿天生有一种形成单一主要依恋的驱力，这种纽带作为未来关系的原型——内部工作模型。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation classified attachment types into secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C) based on reunion behaviours.
安斯沃斯的陌生情境根据重聚行为将依恋类型分为安全型 (B 型)、不安全-回避型 (A 型) 和不安全-反抗型 (C 型)。
Cultural variations in attachment, such as a higher proportion of secure attachments in collectivist cultures, demonstrate that child-rearing practices influence attachment patterns.
依恋的文化差异，如集体主义文化中安全依恋比例较高，表明养育方式会影响依恋模式。
Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis argued that prolonged separation from the mother during the critical period (before age 2.5) could cause permanent emotional damage.
鲍尔比的母性剥夺假说认为，在关键期（2.5 岁前）与母亲长时间分离可能导致永久的情感伤害。
7. Developmental Psychology: Piaget's Cognitive Development | 发展心理学：皮亚杰认知发展
Piaget's stage theory describes four universal stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years), pre-operational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years), and formal operational (11+ years).
皮亚杰的阶段理论描述了四个普遍阶段：感觉运动阶段（0–2 岁）、前运算阶段（2–7 岁）、具体运算阶段（7–11 岁）和形式运算阶段（11 岁以上）。
Object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight—develops towards the end of the sensorimotor stage.
客体永久性——理解物体在看不见时仍继续存在——在感觉运动阶段结束时发展出来。
Conservation tasks show that pre-operational children fail to understand that quantity remains constant despite changes in appearance, because of centration and irreversibility.
守恒任务显示前运算阶段儿童未能理解尽管外观改变但数量保持不变，原因是中心化和不可逆性。
In the formal operational stage, adolescents can think abstractly, formulate hypotheses, and use deductive reasoning, enabling systematic problem-solving.
在形式运算阶段，青少年能够进行抽象思维、提出假设并运用演绎推理，从而进行系统性的问题解决。
Vygotsky criticised Piaget, emphasising the role of social interaction and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in scaffolding a child's cognitive growth.
维果茨基批评皮亚杰，强调社会互动和最近发展区在支架式支持儿童认知成长中的作用。
8. Individual Differences: Mental Health | 个体差异：心理健康
Unipolar depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest in pleasurable activities (anhedonia), changes in appetite and sleep, and feelings of worthlessness.
单相抑郁症的特征是持续的情绪低落、对愉快活动丧失兴趣（快感缺乏）、食欲和睡眠变化以及无价值感。
The biological explanation of depression focuses on a deficiency of the neurotransmitter serotonin at synaptic clefts, often treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
抑郁症的生物学解释关注突触间隙中神经递质血清素的不足，常用选择性血清素再摄取抑制剂（SSRIs）进行治疗。
Beck's cognitive triad proposes that depressed individuals hold negative views about themselves, the world, and the future, maintained by faulty information processing such as overgeneralisation.
贝克的认知三联体认为，抑郁个体对自己、世界和未来持有负面看法，并通过过度概括等错误信息加工维持这些看法。
Ellis's ABC model explains that an activating event (A) does not cause emotional consequences directly; it is the irrational belief (B) about the event that triggers depression (C).
埃利斯的 ABC 模型解释，诱发性事件 (A) 并不直接引起情绪后果，而是对事件的非理性信念 (B) 触发了抑郁 (C)。
Addiction can be explained through biological models (dopamine reward pathway), cognitive models (expectancies), and social learning models (observational learning of substance use).
成瘾可通过生物模型（多巴胺奖赏通路）、认知模型（期望）和社会学习模型（物质使用的观察学习）来解释。
9. Psychological Debates: Nature versus Nurture | 心理学争议：先天与后天
The nature–nurture debate concerns the extent to which behaviour is determined by genetic inheritance (nature) or by environmental influences and learning (nurture).
先天与后天争议涉及行为在多大程度上由遗传（先天）决定，还是由环境影响和学习（后天）决定。
Twin studies, particularly those comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins, provide a method for estimating heritability; higher concordance rates in monozygotic twins suggest a genetic component.
双生子研究，尤其是比较同卵与异卵双生子，提供了一种估计遗传力的方法；同卵双生子较高的同病率提示存在遗传成分。
The interactionist approach accepts that most behaviours arise from gene–environment interactions; for example, a genetic predisposition may require an environmental trigger to activate.
交互论取向承认大多数行为源于基因与环境的交互作用；例如，遗传易感性可能需要环境触发器才能激活。
Determinism proposes that all actions are caused by prior events (biological, environmental, or psychic), whereas free will suggests that humans can choose their own actions autonomously.
决定论认为所有行为都由先前事件（生物、环境或心理的）引起，而自由意志则主张人类可以自主选择自己的行动。
Reductionism breaks down complex behaviours into simpler components, e.g. explaining depression at the level of serotonin; holism argues that the whole experience is more than the sum of parts.
还原论将复杂行为分解为更简单的成分，例如以血清素水平解释抑郁症；整体论则主张整体体验大于部分之和。
10. Ethical Issues in Psychology | 心理学伦理问题
Researchers must obtain fully informed consent, ensuring participants understand the purpose and procedures; where this is not possible, presumptive consent or prior general consent may be used.
研究者必须获得充分知情同意，确保参与者理解研究目的和程序；若不可能，可采用假定同意或事先一般同意。
Deception should be avoided, but when necessary it must be justified and followed by a thorough debrief in which the true nature of the study is revealed and support is offered.
应避免欺瞒，但在必要时必须有正当理由，并随后进行详细的事后解释，揭示研究的真实性质并提供支持。
Participant confidentiality must be safeguarded; data should be anonymised, and individuals should not be identifiable in publications unless explicit permission has been granted.
必须保护参与者隐私；数据应匿名处理，除非获得明确许可，否则发表物中不得识别出个人身份。
The protection from harm principle requires that participants do not experience greater physical or psychological distress than they would in everyday life (the 'no-detriment' principle).
避免伤害原则要求参与者所经历的身体或心理痛苦不高于日常生活中的水平（“无损害”原则）。
When using non-human animals, researchers must adhere to the principles of replacement, reduction, and refinement (the 3Rs) and justify the scientific value of the work.
使用非人类动物时，研究者必须遵守替代、减少和优化的 3R 原则，并证明工作的科学价值。
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