📚 Year 13 OCR Psychology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 13 OCR 心理学：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to the essential revision guide for Year 13 OCR Psychology. This article consolidates the core content you need to master, including the twenty core studies, advanced research methods, and key topics in applied psychology such as mental health and forensic psychology. Understanding these building blocks will help you analyse, evaluate, and apply psychological knowledge effectively in your examinations.
欢迎阅读 Year 13 OCR 心理学的核心复习指南。本文整理了你需要掌握的核心内容，包括二十项核心研究、进阶研究方法以及应用心理学的关键主题（如心理健康与犯罪心理学）。理解这些基础模块将帮助你在考试中有效分析、评估和应用心理学知识。
1. Social Psychology Core Studies | 社会心理学核心研究
Milgram (1963) investigated obedience to authority by asking participants to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a 'learner' (a confederate). Despite signs of distress, 65% of participants proceeded to the maximum 450V level. The study demonstrates the powerful influence of situational factors, such as the presence of an authority figure and a prestigious setting, over individual conscience.
米尔格拉姆（1963）通过要求参与者对“学生”（实验助手）施加逐渐增强的电击来研究对权威的服从。尽管表现出痛苦，仍有65%的参与者继续施加到了450伏的最高电压。该研究展示了情境因素（如权威人物的在场与权威机构的环境）对个人良知的强大影响力。
Piliavin et al. (1969) staged a collapse on a New York subway to study bystander intervention. They found that the victim's apparent condition (ill vs. drunk) significantly affected helping rates, with a cost-reward model explaining the decision-making process. This field experiment highlighted that the diffusion of responsibility is not inevitable; the physical presence of many bystanders can sometimes increase help when the situation is unambiguous.
皮利亚文等人（1969）在纽约地铁模拟了乘客倒下的事件以研究旁观者干预。他们发现，受害者的外在状态（生病 vs. 醉酒）显著影响帮助率，并用成本–收益模型解释了决策过程。该现场实验强调责任扩散并非必然；当情境明确时，众多旁观者的实际在场有时反而会增加帮助行为。
2. Cognitive Psychology Core Studies | 认知心理学核心研究
Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated the susceptibility of memory to leading questions. In Experiment 1, participants who heard the verb 'smashed' when describing a car crash gave significantly higher speed estimates than those who heard 'hit'. Experiment 2 revealed that the misleading verb could create false memories of broken glass. This study underpins the theory of reconstructive memory.
洛夫特斯和帕尔默（1974）证明了记忆容易受到引导性提问的影响。在实验一中，听到“撞碎”一词描述车祸的参与者给出的速度估计明显高于听到“碰”的参与者。实验二揭示，误导性动词能够产生关于破碎玻璃的错误记忆。该研究奠定了记忆重构理论的基础。
Grant et al. (1998) explored context-dependent memory by testing participants in matching or mismatching conditions (silent vs. noisy). Recall and recognition were significantly better when the study and test environments matched. This has practical implications for exam preparation, suggesting that studying in a similar environment to the testing room may improve academic performance.
格兰特等人（1998）通过在匹配与不匹配的条件（安静 vs. 嘈杂）下测试参与者，探究了情境依赖记忆。当学习与测试环境一致时，回忆与再认成绩显著更好。这对考试准备具有实际意义，表明在与考场相似的环境中学习可能提升学业表现。
3. Developmental Psychology Core Studies | 发展心理学核心研究
Bandura et al. (1961) conducted the Bobo doll experiment to examine social learning of aggression. Children who observed an aggressive adult model were significantly more likely to imitate physical and verbal aggression towards the doll. The study highlighted the roles of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation in observational learning, challenging purely biological accounts of aggression.
班杜拉等人（1961）进行了波波玩偶实验，以考察攻击行为的社会学习。观察到成人攻击榜样的儿童显著更多地模仿对玩偶的身体和言语攻击。该研究强调了注意、保持、再现和动机在观察学习中的作用，挑战了仅用生物因素解释攻击行为的观点。
Chaney et al. (2004) investigated the 'Funhaler', a positive reinforcement device designed to improve adherence to asthma medication in children. The study found that when using the Funhaler, children were more likely to take their medication correctly and parents reported less stress. This applied developmental research illustrates how operant conditioning principles can be used to solve real-world health problems.
钱尼等人（2004）研究了“趣味吸入器”，这是一种旨在提高儿童哮喘用药依从性的正强化装置。研究发现，使用趣味吸入器时，儿童更可能正确服药，父母报告的压力也减少了。这项应用发展心理学研究展示了如何运用操作性条件作用原理来解决现实中的健康问题。
4. Biological Psychology Core Studies | 生物心理学核心研究
Sperry (1968) studied patients who had undergone split-brain surgery (corpus callosum severed) to treat severe epilepsy. By presenting stimuli to only one visual field, he demonstrated hemispheric specialisation: the left hemisphere is dominant for language and speech, while the right excels in spatial and visual-motor tasks. This quasi-experiment provided strong evidence for lateralisation of brain function.
斯佩里（1968）研究了因治疗严重癫痫而接受裂脑手术（切断胼胝体）的患者。通过仅向一侧视野呈现刺激，他证明了大脑半球的功能特化：左半球在语言和言语方面占主导，而右半球则在空间和视觉运动任务中表现出色。这项准实验为脑功能偏侧化提供了有力证据。
Maguire et al. (2000) used structural MRI to examine the brains of London taxi drivers who had acquired extensive spatial navigation experience. They found that the posterior hippocampus was significantly larger in taxi drivers compared to controls, and hippocampal volume correlated positively with time spent navigating. This demonstrates neuroplasticity in response to environmental demands.
马圭尔等人（2000）使用结构磁共振成像检查了拥有丰富空间导航经验的伦敦出租车司机的大脑。他们发现，与对照组相比，出租车司机的后海马体明显更大，且海马体体积与导航时间呈正相关。这证明了大脑为响应环境需求而进行的神经可塑性变化。
5. Individual Differences Core Studies | 个体差异核心研究
Freud (1909) presented the case study of 'Little Hans', a five-year-old boy with a phobia of horses. Freud interpreted the phobia as a manifestation of the Oedipus complex, where Hans' fear of his father was displaced onto horses. This study illustrates the psychodynamic approach, highlighting unconscious conflicts, defence mechanisms, and the significance of early childhood experiences.
弗洛伊德（1909）展现了“小汉斯”的个案研究，这是一个患有马匹恐惧症的五岁男孩。弗洛伊德将恐惧症解释为俄狄浦斯情结的表现，即汉斯对父亲的恐惧被置换到了马身上。该研究展示了心理动力学取向，强调了无意识冲突、防御机制以及早期童年经历的重要性。
Gould (1982) reviewed the history of intelligence testing, particularly the misuse of Yerkes' Army Alpha and Beta tests during World War I. The tests were culturally biased, poorly administered, and led to flawed conclusions about the intellectual inferiority of certain racial groups. Gould's work is a cautionary tale about psychometric testing, emphasising the importance of validity, standardisation, and ethical use of psychological measures.
古尔德（1982）回顾了智力测验的历史，特别是第一次世界大战期间耶基斯陆军甲种和乙种测验的误用。这些测验存在文化偏见，施测不当，并导致了对某些种族群体智力低下的错误结论。古尔德的著作是对心理测量的一次警示，强调效度、标准化以及合乎伦理地使用心理测量工具的重要性。
6. Advanced Research Methods | 进阶研究方法
You must be able to distinguish between experimental designs: independent measures (different participants in each condition), repeated measures (same participants in all conditions), and matched pairs (different but matched participants). Each has strengths and weaknesses, such as order effects in repeated measures or participant variables in independent measures. Counterbalancing and random allocation are common controls.
你必须能够区分实验设计：独立组设计（每个条件下不同的参与者）、重复测量设计（所有条件下同一批参与者）和配对组设计（不同但匹配的参与者）。每种设计都有优缺点，比如重复测量中的顺序效应或独立组中的参与者变量。抵消平衡和随机分配是常见的控制手段。
Operationalisation of variables, reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) are crucial. Internal validity refers to whether the IV truly caused the DV, while external validity concerns generalisability. Researchers often conduct pilot studies to refine procedures. Ethical guidelines – informed consent, deception, debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality – must be considered for all human studies.
变量的操作化、信度（一致性）和效度（准确性）至关重要。内部效度指自变量是否真正导致了因变量的变化，而外部效度则关乎可推广性。研究者经常进行预研究以优化程序。所有涉及人类的研究都必须考虑伦理准则——知情同意、欺骗、事后解释、退出权和保密原则。
Non-experimental methods include observations (covert, overt, participant), self-reports (questionnaires, interviews) and correlational analysis. Correlations show a relationship but not causation; a correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1 to +1. Care must be taken with social desirability bias, observer bias, and the direction of the correlation coefficient.
非实验方法包括观察法（隐蔽、公开、参与式）、自我报告法（问卷、访谈）和相关分析。相关表明一种关系，但不是因果关系；相关系数（r）的范围是 -1 到 +1。需要注意社会期望偏差、观察者偏差以及相关系数的方向。
7. Inferential Statistics & Probability | 推论统计与概率
Inferential tests allow psychologists to determine whether results are statistically significant. The conventional significance level is p < 0.05, meaning there is a less than 5% probability that the observed result occurred by chance. A Type I error is a false positive (rejecting a true null hypothesis), while a Type II error is a false negative (failing to reject a false null hypothesis).
推论检验使心理学家能够判断结果是否具有统计显著性。常规的显著性水平是 p < 0.05，意味着观察到的结果由偶然因素导致的概率小于5%。第一类错误是假阳性（拒绝了正确的零假设），第二类错误是假阴性（未能拒绝错误的零假设）。
OCR candidates need to be familiar with non-parametric tests: the Sign test for repeated measures nominal data, Wilcoxon signed-ranks for repeated measures ordinal data, Mann-Whitney U for independent measures ordinal data, and Chi-squared (χ²) for independent measures nominal data or association. Spearman's rho tests correlation between two ordinal variables. Parametric tests like the related or unrelated t-test are used when data meet the assumptions of normality and interval/ratio level.
OCR 考生需要熟悉非参数检验：符号检验用于重复测量的称名数据，Wilcoxon 符号秩检验用于重复测量的顺序数据，Mann-Whitney U 检验用于独立组设计的顺序数据，卡方检验（χ²）用于独立组称名数据或关联性分析。斯皮尔曼等级相关系数检验两个顺序变量间的相关。当数据满足正态分布和等距/等比测量水平的假设时，使用参数检验如相关或无关 t 检验。
When interpreting a statistical test, you must compare the observed (calculated) value to a critical value from a table based on significance level, one-tailed or two-tailed hypothesis, and degrees of freedom (or N). If the observed value is more extreme than the critical value, the result is significant and the null hypothesis is rejected.
解释统计检验时，必须将观测（计算）值与根据显著性水平、单尾或双尾假设以及自由度（或 N）从表格中查得的临界值进行比较。若观测值比临界值更极端，则结果显著，拒绝零假设。
8. Mental Health – Applied Psychology | 心理健康 – 应用心理学
The compulsory mental health topic requires understanding how abnormality is defined. The four key definitions are statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, and deviation from ideal mental health. Each definition has strengths and limitations; for example, statistical infrequency is objective but culturally relative, while failure to function considers subjective distress but makes subjective judgements.
心理健康必修主题要求理解异常行为的定义方式。四种关键定义为：统计罕见性、偏离社会规范、无法充分正常生活和偏离理想心理健康。每种定义都有优缺点；例如，统计罕见性客观但具有文化相对性，而无法充分正常生活考虑了个体痛苦但需要主观判断。
The DSM-5 classification system is used for diagnosis. You should know the characteristics and explanations for disorders such as schizophrenia (symptoms: hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech; biological explanation: dopamine hypothesis; cognitive explanation: faulty information processing; psychological treatment: CBT). For depression, the cognitive triad (negative view of self, world, future) and Beck's negative schemas help explain vulnerability. Treatments range from drug therapy (SSRIs) to cognitive-behavioural therapy and psychodynamic approaches.
DSM-5 分类系统用于诊断。你应了解精神分裂症等障碍的特征与解释（症状：幻觉、妄想、言语紊乱；生物解释：多巴胺假说；认知解释：信息加工障碍；心理治疗：CBT）。对于抑郁症，认知三联（对自我、世界和未来的负面看法）以及贝克的负面图式有助于解释易感性。治疗方式涵盖药物治疗（SSRI）、认知行为疗法以及心理动力学取向。
9. Forensic Psychology – Applied Option | 犯罪心理学 – 应用选项
In the forensic psychology option, you examine what makes a criminal. Biological explanations include genetic influence (twin studies, MAOA gene), brain abnormalities (prefrontal cortex dysfunction), and the atavistic form proposed by Lombroso. Cognitive explanations focus on moral reasoning (Kohlberg's stages) and cognitive distortions such as hostile attribution bias. Social explanations examine the role of labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, and differential association theory.
在犯罪心理学选项的学习中，你会检视犯罪行为的成因。生物解释包括遗传影响（双生子研究、MAOA 基因）、脑部异常（前额叶皮层功能障碍）以及龙勃罗梭提出的天生犯罪人假说。认知解释聚焦于道德推理（柯尔伯格的阶段论）和认知扭曲，如敌意归因偏差。社会解释则考察标签效应、自我实现预言和差别交往理论的作用。
The topic also covers how offenders are dealt with. Custodial sentencing aims at punishment, deterrence and rehabilitation, but prisons often act as 'schools of crime'. Cognitive-behavioural treatments such as anger management (identifying triggers, cognitive restructuring, skills training) and restorative justice (offender-victim mediation) are evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing recidivism.
该主题还涵盖了对犯罪者的处理方式。监禁判决旨在惩罚、威慑和改造，但监狱常常成为“犯罪学校”。认知行为疗法，如愤怒管理（识别触发因素、认知重构、技能训练）和恢复性司法（犯罪者–受害者调解），会被评估其减少再犯的有效性。
10. Exam Skills and Critical Evaluation | 考试技巧与批判性评估
For the core studies exam, you must be able to compare and contrast studies across themes and areas, evaluating methodology, ethics, and cultural issues. Use the 'GRAVE' framework (Generalisability, Reliability, Applicability, Validity, Ethics) to structure your evaluation. Always link methodological points to how they affect the conclusions we can draw from the study.
在核心研究考试中，你必须能够跨主题和领域比较与对比各项研究，评估其方法、伦理以及文化议题。使用 "GRAVE" 框架（可推广性、信度、应用性、效度、伦理）来组织你的评估。务必将方法层面的论点与它们如何影响我们能从研究中得出的结论联系起来。
In the applied psychology sections, you need to apply knowledge to novel scenarios. Practice identifying the psychological issue, proposing an explanation, and suggesting a suitable treatment or intervention. For statistics questions, show all steps: state the hypotheses, justify your choice of test, calculate (or identify) the value, compare to critical values, and state a clear conclusion in terms of the research question.
在应用心理学部分，你需要将知识应用于新情境。练习识别心理问题，提出解释，并建议合适的治疗或干预措施。对于统计题目，展示所有步骤：陈述假设，说明检验选择理由，计算（或识别）数值，与临界值比较，并根据研究问题给出清晰结论。
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