📚 IGCSE OCR Psychology: Rapid Vocabulary and Terminology Memorisation Guide | IGCSE OCR 心理学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the key terms is half the battle in IGCSE OCR Psychology. This guide breaks down the most essential vocabulary across all syllabus topics, giving you clear definitions, bilingual explanations, and memory hacks to lock them in fast.
掌握关键术语是 IGCSE OCR 心理学考试成功的一半。本指南梳理了考纲所有主题中最高频、最核心的词汇，提供清晰定义、中英双语解释以及速记技巧，帮你快速锁定每一个术语。
1. Research Methods: Variables and Hypotheses | 研究方法：变量与假设
The independent variable (IV) is the factor the researcher manipulates or changes, while the dependent variable (DV) is what is measured; the outcome depends on the IV.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者操纵或改变的因素，因变量 (DV) 则是测量结果；DV 的变化依赖于 IV。
Memory tip: IV = 'I change', DV = 'Data collected'. A hypothesis is a precise, testable prediction, often written as 'If… then…' will be an effect; the null hypothesis states no effect (any difference is due to chance).
记忆技巧：IV = “我改变的”，DV = “记录的数据”。假设是精确可检验的预测，常写成“如果……那么……”。备择假设认为有影响；零假设认为没有影响（任何差异都是偶然造成的）。
Operationalisation means defining variables clearly so they can be measured – e.g., 'memory performance' becomes 'number of words recalled from a list of 20'.
操作化是指清楚地定义变量以便测量——例如，“记忆力表现”变成“从 20 个单词列表中正确回忆的单词数”。
2. Experimental Designs: Independent Groups, Repeated Measures, Matched Pairs | 实验设计：独立组、重复测量、匹配对
Independent groups design uses different participants in each condition. Pro: no order effects. Con: participant variables may differ between groups.
独立组设计在每种条件下使用不同的被试。优点：无顺序效应。缺点：被试间个体差异可能影响结果。
Repeated measures design uses the same participants in all conditions. Pro: participant variables controlled. Con: order effects (practice, fatigue) and demand characteristics.
重复测量设计在所有条件下使用相同被试。优点：控制了个体差异。缺点：顺序效应（练习效应、疲劳效应）和需求特征。
Matched pairs design uses different but similar participants, matched on key traits. Pro: reduces participant variables and avoids order effects. Con: time-consuming and never a perfect match.
匹配对设计使用不同但关键特质匹配的被试。优点：减少个体差异且避免顺序效应。缺点：耗时且无法完美匹配。
3. Reliability and Validity | 信度与效度
Reliability means consistency. If you repeat the measurement, you get similar results. Internal reliability asks whether items within a test are consistent (e.g., split-half method); external reliability asks if you get same results on different occasions (test-retest).
信度指一致性。如果重复测量，得到相似结果。内部信度指测试内部题目是否一致（如分半法）；外部信度指不同时间施测是否得到相同结果（重测信度）。
Validity means accuracy – does the study measure what it claims to measure? Internal validity: are you really measuring the IV-DV relationship without confounding variables? External validity: can findings be generalised to other settings, people, and times (population validity, ecological validity)?
效度指准确性——研究是否测量了它声称要测量的东西？内部效度：你是否真的在测量 IV-DV 的关系而没有混淆变量？外部效度：研究结果能否推广到其他情境、人群和时代（人口效度、生态效度）？
Memory trick: Reliability = Repeatable; Validity = Veracious ('truthful').
记忆窍门：Reliability = 可重复；Validity = 真实准确。
4. Sampling Methods | 取样方法
Random sampling: every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. Pro: unbiased. Con: need a full list, may still be unrepresentative by chance.
随机取样：目标总体中每个成员被选中的机会相等。优点：无偏。缺点：需要完整名单，可能偶然不具备代表性。
Opportunity sampling: recruiting whoever is available and willing. Pro: quick, convenient. Con: likely biased, unrepresentative.
方便取样：招募任何可用且有意愿的人。优点：快速方便。缺点：很可能有偏见，不具代表性。
Stratified sampling: identifying subgroups (strata) and selecting proportionally from each. Pro: representative. Con: time-consuming, strata must be known.
分层取样：确定亚群体（层）并按比例从每层选取。优点：具代表性。缺点：耗时，必须已知层的分布。
Systematic sampling: selecting every nth person from a list. Pro: simpler than random, often representative. Con: periodicity might introduce bias.
系统取样：从名单中每隔 n 个人选取一人。优点：比随机简单，常有代表性。缺点：周期性排列可能引入偏差。
5. Ethical Guidelines | 伦理准则
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets ethical principles: informed consent, deception avoidance, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing.
英国心理学会设定伦理原则：知情同意、避免欺骗、随时退出权、免受伤害、保密和事后解释。
Memory hack: Using the first letters: I-C-W-P-C-D (Informed consent, Consent alternative if necessary, Withdraw, Protection, Confidentiality, Debrief). Or 'Please Can We Do Psychology Carefully' (Protection, Consent, Withdrawal, Deception, Privacy/Confidentiality).
记忆技巧：用首字母：I-C-W-P-C-D。或记住口诀“Please Can We Do Psychology Carefully”对应保护、同意、退出、欺骗、隐私/保密。
Investigators must ensure children and vulnerable participants have extra protection. Confidentiality means data should not be traceable to individuals, often achieved by using codes or numbers.
研究者必须确保儿童和弱势被试得到额外保护。保密意味着数据不能追溯到个人，通常通过使用代码或编号实现。
6. Cognitive Psychology: Models of Memory | 认知心理学：记忆模型
m memory (LTM). Information moves via attention (sensory → STM) and rehearsal (STM → LTM).
多储存模型（阿特金森与希夫林）将记忆描述为三个储存库：感觉登记、短时记忆和长时记忆。信息通过注意（感觉→短时）和复述（短时→长时）转移。
ally unlimited. Duration: sensory <0.5 seconds (visual), STM up to 30 s without rehearsal, LTM up to a lifetime.
容量：感觉登记极大，短时记忆 7±2 个组块，长时记忆潜无限。持续时间：感觉储存 <0.5 秒（视觉），短时记忆无复述最长 30 秒，长时记忆可达一生。
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) replaces STM with components: central executive (attention controller), phonological loop (verbal/sound), visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial), and episodic buffer (integrates info).
工作记忆模型（巴德利与希奇）用多个成分取代短时记忆：中央执行器（注意力控制）、语音回路（言语/声音）、视空间画板（视觉/空间）和情节缓冲器（整合信息）。
Key studies: Peterson & Peterson demonstrated STM duration via trigram retention with interference tasks. Bartlett showed reconstructive memory using 'War of the Ghosts'.
关键研究：彼得森夫妇通过三元组与干扰任务证明短时记忆持续时间。巴特利特通过“幽灵之战”故事证明记忆的重构性。
7. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief to fit in with a group. Normative social influence: desire to be liked, gain approval. Informational social influence: desire to be right, look to others in ambiguous situations.
从众是为了融入群体而改变行为或信念。规范社会影响：渴望被喜欢、获得认可。信息社会影响：渴望正确、在模糊情境中参照他人。
Asch's line study showed participants conformed on 37% of critical trials, decreasing with an ally or when writing answers privately.
阿希的线段实验显示，被试在 37% 的关键试次中从众，当有盟友或私下书写答案时从众减少。
Obedience is following direct orders from an authority figure. Milgram's electric shock study: 65% went to the maximum 450V. Factors affecting obedience: proximity, authority uniform, location, and social support.
服从是遵从权威人物直接命令。米尔格拉姆电击实验：65% 的被试施加了最高 450V 电击。影响服从的因素：接近距离、权威制服、地点和社会支持。
Memory tip: Conformity = group pressure (peer); Obedience = authority figure command.
记忆技巧：从众 = 群体压力（同伴）；服从 = 权威命令。
8. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Attachment is a deep emotional bond between infant and caregiver. Key behaviours: proximity seeking, separation distress, secure-base behaviour.
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间深厚的情感纽带。关键行为：寻求接近、分离痛苦、安全基地行为。
Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation' classified attachments: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), insecure-resistant (Type C). Main & Solomon later added disorganised (Type D).
安斯沃思的“陌生情境法”将依恋分类为：安全型 (B 型)、不安全-回避型 (A 型)、不安全-反抗型 (C 型)。梅因与所罗门后来增加了混乱型 (D 型)。
Cultural variations: Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg's meta-analysis found secure attachment was most common across cultures, but rates varied; intra-cultural differences were often greater than inter-cultural.
文化差异：范·艾詹多恩与克龙恩伯格的元分析发现安全型依恋在所有文化中均最常见，但比例有差异；文化内部的差异常常大于文化之间的差异。
Bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis states prolonged separation from the primary caregiver before age 2.5 years can cause irreversible emotional and intellectual damage.
鲍尔比的母爱剥夺假说认为，2.5 岁前与主要照料者长期分离可能导致不可逆的情绪和智力损害。
9. Biopsychology: Neurons, Synapses, and the Brain | 生物心理学：神经元、突触与大脑
A neuron has a cell body (soma), dendrites (receive signals), and an axon (transmits signals). The myelin sheath speeds up transmission. Messages travel electrically within the neuron (action potential) and chemically between neurons (neurotransmitters across the synapse).
神经元有胞体、树突（接收信号）和轴突（传递信号）。髓鞘加快传递速度。信息在神经元内以电信号（动作电位）传递，在神经元之间以化学物质（神经递质穿过突触）传递。
Synaptic transmission: vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft; it binds to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron. Excitation makes the neuron more likely to fire; inhibition less likely.
突触传递：囊泡释放神经递质到突触间隙；神经递质与突触后神经元的受体位点结合。兴奋使神经元更可能发放冲动；抑制则降低可能性。
Localisation of function: motor cortex (back of frontal lobe) controls voluntary movement; somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) processes touch; visual cortex (occipital lobe); auditory cortex (temporal lobe). Broca's area (left frontal) is for speech production, Wernicke's area (left temporal) for language comprehension.
功能定位：运动皮层（额叶后部）控制随意运动；躯体感觉皮层（顶叶）处理触觉；视觉皮层（枕叶）；听觉皮层（颞叶）。布洛卡区（左额叶）负责语言产生，韦尼克区（左颞叶）负责语言理解。
10. Research Designs and Types of Data | 研究设计与数据类型
Experiments have an IV and DV, and involve manipulation of the IV. Quasi-experiments have an IV based on existing differences (e.g., gender) and cannot randomly allocate participants.
实验有自变量和因变量，并操纵自变量。准实验的自变量基于已有差异（如性别），不能随机分配被试。
Correlational research measures the relationship between two co-variables. Positive correlation: both increase together. Negative: as one increases, the other decreases. Correlation does NOT imply causation.
相关研究测量两个协变量之间的关系。正相关：两者同时增加。负相关：一个增加，另一个减少。相关 ≠ 因果。
Observational studies can be naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant or non-participant. Each has its own strengths and limitations regarding ecological validity and observer bias.
观察研究可以是自然观察、控制观察、隐蔽或公开、参与或非参与。每种在生态效度和观察者偏见方面各有优劣。
Types of data: quantitative (numerical, analysed statistically) vs qualitative (rich, descriptive, analysed thematically); primary (collected firsthand) vs secondary (already exists).
数据类型：定量数据（数字，统计分析）与定性数据（丰富描述，主题分析）；一手数据（亲自收集）与二手数据（已经存在）。
11. Cognitive Biases and Heuristics | 认知偏差与启发式
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that speed up decision making but can lead to errors. The availability heuristic: judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind (e.g., plane crashes seem more common than car crashes after high-profile news).
启发式是加速决策的心理捷径，但可能导致错误。可得性启发：根据例子容易想到的程度判断可能性（例如，重大新闻后觉飞机失事比车祸多）。
Representativeness heuristic: estimating probability based on how similar something is to a prototype (ignoring base rates).
代表性启发：根据某事与原型的相似度估计概率（忽略基础比率）。
Anchoring bias: relying too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the anchor). Confirmation bias: searching for evidence that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
锚定偏差：过度依赖首先获取的信息（锚点）。验证性偏差：搜寻证实既有信念的证据。
Memory aid: 'Heuristics save effort but hide error.' Ensure you can link each heuristic to a key study, e.g., Tversky & Kahneman.
记忆辅助：“启发式省力但藏错。”确保能将每种启发式联系到关键研究，如特沃斯基与卡尼曼的经典实验。
12. Social and Cognitive Key Studies Compendium | 社会与认知关键研究速查
| Study | Key Term Linked | Quick Recall |
|---|---|---|
| Milgram (1963) | Obedience, authority | 65% to 450V; proximity variation |
| Asch (1951) | Conformity, normative influence | 37% conformity; ally reduced it |
| Loftus & Palmer (1974) | Leading questions, eyewitness memory | Verb 'smashed' → higher speed estimates |
| Peterson & Peterson (1959) | STM duration, rehearsal | Trigrams recalled after 3-18 s delay |
| Bartlett (1932) | Reconstructive memory, schemas | 'War of the Ghosts' transformed details |
| Ainsworth (1978) | Attachment types, Strange Situation | Secure, avoidant, resistant |
Use this table as a final check before exams. Each study name should trigger the corresponding terminology and one-sentence findings.
将此表作为考前最终检查清单。每个研究名称应立刻触发对应术语和一句话结论。
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