📚 Core Knowledge Review for IGCSE OCR Psychology | IGCSE OCR 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This article distils the essential topics for the IGCSE OCR Psychology syllabus. It serves as a structured revision guide covering research methods, cognitive, social, biological, and developmental psychology, ensuring you grasp the key theories, studies, and terminology needed for success.
本文梳理了IGCSE OCR心理学课程的核心主题。作为一份结构化的复习指南，它涵盖了研究方法、认知、社会、生物和发展心理学等内容，帮助你掌握成功所需的关键理论、研究案例和术语。
1. Research Methods | 研究方法
Psychology relies on empirical methods. You must be able to distinguish between independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV), and formulate operationalised hypotheses. Experiments can use independent groups, repeated measures, or matched pairs designs, each with distinct advantages regarding order effects and participant variables.
心理学依赖实证方法。你必须能够区分自变量(IV)和因变量(DV)，并写出操作化假设。实验可采用独立组设计、重复测量设计或匹配对设计，每种设计在顺序效应和参与者变量方面各有优劣。
Standardised procedures and random allocation help control extraneous variables. Ethical guidelines—consent, deception, debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality, and protection from harm—are fundamental. Quantitative data can be analysed using descriptive statistics like mean, median, mode, and range.
标准化程序和随机分配有助于控制额外变量。伦理准则——知情同意、避免欺骗、事后解释、退出权、保密和避免伤害——是基本要求。定量数据可以使用平均数、中位数、众数和全距等描述性统计进行分析。
Qualitative data from interviews or open-ended questions provides depth. You should understand reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy). Sampling methods include random, opportunity, and stratified, each affecting generalisability.
来自访谈或开放性问题的定性数据能提供深度。你应理解信度(一致性)和效度(准确性)。抽样方法包括随机抽样、机会抽样和分层抽样，每种方法都会影响推广性。
2. Memory | 记忆
. Information is transferred by attention and rehearsal. STM has limited capacity (7±2 items) and duration, while LTM is potentially unlimited.
多储存模型(Atkinson & Shiffrin)将感觉登记、短时记忆(STM)和长时记忆(LTM)描述为不同的储存库。信息通过注意和复述进行转移。短时记忆容量有限(7±2个组块)且持续时间短，而长时记忆的容量和持续时间几乎无限。
Working memory (Baddeley & Hitch) replaced the concept of a unitary STM with the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. Each component processes specific types of information simultaneously, explaining dual-task performance.
工作记忆模型(Baddeley & Hitch)用中央执行系统、语音回路、视空间模板和情景缓冲器取代了单一的短时记忆概念。每个成分同时处理特定类型的信息，这解释了双任务表现。
Explanations of forgetting include proactive and retroactive interference, as well as context-dependent and state-dependent retrieval failure. Eyewitness testimony research (Loftus & Palmer) shows how leading questions and post-event information distort memory, raising issues about the reliability of recollection.
遗忘的解释包括前摄抑制和倒摄抑制，以及情境依赖和状态依赖的提取失败。目击者证词研究(Loftus & Palmer)表明，误导性问题和事后信息会扭曲记忆，这引发了对回忆可靠性的质疑。
3. Attachment | 依恋
Attachment is an emotional bond between an infant and caregiver. Bowlby's evolutionary theory proposes that attachment is innate, develops during a critical period, and provides an internal working model for future relationships.
依恋是婴儿与照顾者之间的情感纽带。Bowlby的进化理论提出，依恋是天生的，在关键期内发展，并为未来人际关系提供内部工作模型。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure identified attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C). Cross-cultural meta-analyses (van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg) show that secure attachment is the most common pattern globally, but there are cultural variations in sub-types.
Ainsworth的“陌生情境”程序识别出依恋类型：安全型(B型)、不安全-回避型(A型)和不安全-反抗型(C型)。跨文化元分析(van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg)显示，安全型依恋是全球最常见的模式，但亚型在文化间存在差异。
Deprivation and privation can have negative long-term effects, as illustrated by Bowlby's 44 thieves study and case studies of institutionalisation. However, early adversity does not inevitably damage development if later supportive care is provided.
剥夺与缺乏依恋会产生消极的长期影响，如Bowlby的44名少年小偷研究和机构化案例所示。然而，如果之后能获得支持性照料，早期逆境并不必然损害发展。
4. Social Influence | 社会影响
Conformity refers to a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch's line studies revealed that about one-third of participants conformed to an obviously incorrect majority. Factors like group size, unanimity, and task difficulty affect conformity levels.
从众是指因真实或想象中的群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。Asch的线段实验显示，约三分之一的被试会屈从于明显错误的大多数。群体规模、一致性和任务难度等因素会影响从众水平。
Obedience involves following direct commands from an authority figure. Milgram's electric shock experiments demonstrated that 65% of participants administered the maximum 450 V shock. Proximity of the victim, location prestige, and uniform presence influence obedience rates.
服从涉及听从权威人物的直接命令。Milgram的电击实验证明，65%的参与者施加了最高450伏的电击。受害者距离、地点权威性和制服等因素会影响服从率。
Bystander intervention is explained by diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance. The murder of Kitty Genovese prompted research showing that the more bystanders present, the less likely anyone is to help. Social loafing and deindividuation also shape collective behaviour.
旁观者干预现象可以用责任扩散和多数无知来解释。Kitty Genovese谋杀案促进了相关研究，表明旁观者越多，任何一个人出手相助的可能性就越低。社会懈怠和去个性化也会影响集体行为。
5. The Brain and Neuropsychology | 大脑与神经心理学
Neurons are specialised cells that communicate via electrical and chemical signals. The synapse is the gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released. Key neurotransmitters include serotonin, dopamine, and GABA, each linked to mood, reward, and inhibition.
神经元是通过电信号和化学信号进行通信的特化细胞。突触是神经元之间的间隙，神经递质在此处释放。关键的神经递质包括血清素、多巴胺和GABA，分别与情绪、奖赏和抑制有关。
The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord. The cerebral cortex is divided into lobes: frontal (thinking, planning), temporal (auditory processing, memory), parietal (sensory integration), and occipital (vision). Penfield's electrical stimulation studies mapped cortical functions.
中枢神经系统由大脑和脊髓组成。大脑皮层分为四个叶：额叶(思考、计划)、颞叶(听觉处理、记忆)、顶叶(感觉整合)和枕叶(视觉)。Penfield的电刺激研究绘制了皮质功能图谱。
Imaging techniques such as MRI and CT scans help localise brain function. The case of Phineas Gage demonstrated the role of the frontal lobes in personality regulation. Neuroplasticity shows that the brain can reorganise itself following injury.
MRI和CT等成像技术有助于定位脑功能。Phineas Gage的案例证明了额叶在人格调节中的作用。神经可塑性表明，大脑在损伤后能够进行自我重组。
6. Psychological Problems | 心理问题
Mental health problems are defined by deviations from statistical, social, and ideal mental health norms. The diagnosis of depression involves persistent low mood, anhedonia, and cognitive distortions. Biological explanations include neurotransmitter imbalances; psychological explanations cite Beck's cognitive triad.
心理健康问题是通过对统计常模、社会常模和理想心理健康标准的偏离来定义的。抑郁症的诊断涉及持续的情绪低落、快感缺乏和认知扭曲。生物学解释包括神经递质失衡；心理学解释则引用Beck的认知三联征。
Addiction is characterised by dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal. Initiation and maintenance can be explained by neurochemical models (dopamine reward pathway) and social learning theory (vicarious reinforcement, role models). Griffith's study of gambling illustrates cognitive biases like illusion of control.
成瘾的特征是依赖、耐受和戒断。成瘾的开始和维持可以用神经化学模型(多巴胺奖赏通路)和社会学习理论(替代强化、榜样)来解释。Griffith关于赌博的研究说明了控制错觉等认知偏差。
Stigma and labelling (Scheff, Rosenhan) affect how people with mental health issues are perceived. Biological treatments such as drug therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) are used to address these disorders, each with accompanying strengths and limitations.
污名化和标签效应(Scheff, Rosenhan)影响着人们对心理健康问题患者的看法。药物治疗等生物学疗法和认知行为疗法(CBT)被用于应对这些障碍，每种方法都各有优劣。
7. Development | 发展
Piaget's stage theory describes cognitive development in four invariant stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Conservation, egocentrism, and object permanence are key concepts tested in classic experiments (e.g., the three mountains task).
Piaget的阶段理论将认知发展描述为四个不变的阶段：感知运动阶段、前运算阶段、具体运算阶段和形式运算阶段。守恒、自我中心和客体恒存性是经典实验(如三山任务)中测试的关键概念。
Vygotsky emphasised the role of social interaction and culture, proposing the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding. Unlike Piaget, he argued that learning drives development, particularly through language.
Vygotsky强调社会互动和文化的作用，提出了最近发展区(ZPD)和脚手架概念。与Piaget不同，他认为学习驱动发展，尤其是通过语言。
Growth mindset (Dweck) suggests that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning from failure. This contrasts with a fixed mindset. Praise for effort rather than ability fosters resilience. Longitudinal studies support the educational impact of mindset interventions.
成长型心态(Dweck)认为，智力可以通过努力和从失败中学习得到发展。这与固定型心态形成对比。对努力的表扬而非对能力的表扬能培养心理韧性。纵向研究支持了心态干预的教育影响。
8. Sleep and Dreaming | 睡眠与做梦
Sleep cycles include NREM (stages 1-3) and REM sleep. Stage 3 is slow-wave sleep important for restoration, while REM sleep is associated with vivid dreaming and memory consolidation. The sleep-wake cycle is regulated by circadian rhythms and homeostatic processes.
睡眠周期包括非快速眼动(NREM，1-3期)睡眠和快速眼动(REM)睡眠。第3期慢波睡眠对恢复至关重要，而REM睡眠与生动的梦境和记忆巩固相关联。睡眠-觉醒周期由昼夜节律和内稳态过程调节。
Two main theories of dreaming are Freud's wish-fulfilment theory (dreams represent unconscious desires) and the activation-synthesis model (Hobson & McCarley), which suggests dreams result from random neural firing interpreted by the brain.
两种主要的做梦理论是Freud的愿望达成理论(梦代表无意识欲望)和激活-整合模型(Hobson & McCarley)，该模型认为梦是由大脑对随机神经放电进行解释而产生的。
Sleep disorders like insomnia and narcolepsy can be triggered by stress, shift work, and neurological factors. Case studies such as Randy Gardner's extended sleep deprivation highlight effects on concentration, mood, and immune function, though safe recovery is typical.
失眠症和发作性睡病等睡眠障碍可由压力、轮班工作和神经因素引发。Randy Gardner长时间睡眠剥夺等案例研究凸显了对注意力、情绪和免疫功能的影响，不过安全恢复是典型结果。
9. Criminal Psychology | 犯罪心理学
Criminal behaviour can be explained through social learning theory (observational learning, vicarious reinforcement, and imitation of criminal models). Bandura's Bobo doll study demonstrated how children reproduced aggressive behaviours modelled by adults.
犯罪行为可以通过社会学习理论来解释(观察学习、替代强化和对犯罪榜样的模仿)。Bandura的波波玩偶实验展示了儿童如何再现成人示范的攻击行为。
Eysenck's personality theory links offending to high extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, rooted in biological differences in cortical arousal and the limbic system. The EPQ questionnaire measures these dimensions, though it reduces criminality to traits alone.
Eysenck的人格理论将犯罪与外向性、神经质和精神质的高分联系起来，根植于皮层唤醒和边缘系统的生物学差异。EPQ问卷测量这些维度，尽管它将犯罪简化为单一的人格特质。
Cognitive explanations focus on hostile attribution bias and minimalisation. Rehabilitation strategies include anger management and token economy programmes. Bandura's modelling of non-aggressive behaviour also provides a framework for reducing reoffending through prosocial role models.
认知解释聚焦于敌意归因偏差和最小化。矫正策略包括愤怒管理和代币制方案。Bandura关于非攻击行为的示范也为通过亲社会榜样减少再犯提供了框架。
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