📚 Year 13 AQA Psychology: Key Terminology Memorisation Guide | AQA心理学A2阶段核心术语速记指南
Mastering key terminology is essential for achieving high marks in the Year 13 AQA Psychology exam. This guide offers clear definitions and memory aids for the most important A2 terms, covering biopsychology, psychopathology, issues and debates, and popular optional topics. Each section pairs English explanations with Chinese translations to strengthen your bilingual recall and deepen conceptual understanding.
掌握关键术语是 AQA 心理学 A2 考试取得高分的基础。本指南为最重要的 A2 词汇提供清晰的定义与记忆技巧，涵盖生物心理学、精神病理学、争议与议题以及常见选修模块。每个部分都配有中英文对照解释，帮助你在双语环境下强化记忆、加深概念理解。
1. Biopsychology: Neurones & Synaptic Transmission | 神经元与突触传递
In biopsychology, you must be able to label a motor neurone and describe synaptic transmission. A sensory neurone carries impulses from receptors to the CNS, a relay neurone connects sensory and motor neurones, and a motor neurone sends signals to effectors. Synaptic transmission involves vesicles releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
在生物心理学中，你必须能标注运动神经元的结构并描述突触传递。感觉神经元将冲动从感受器传至中枢神经系统，中间神经元连接感觉与运动神经元，运动神经元将信号传递给效应器。突触传递包括突触小泡释放神经递质到突触间隙，并与突触后膜上的受体结合。
| Term | Definition / Memory Tip |
|---|---|
| Action potential | Electrical impulse that travels down the axon. Think 'all-or-nothing firing' – it either happens fully or not at all. |
| Neurotransmitter (e.g. serotonin) | Chemical messenger released from presynaptic vesicles. Mnemonic: 'Serotonin = calm, dopamine = reward.' |
| Reuptake | Neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neurone. Imagine a vacuum cleaner reabsorbing excess chemicals. |
Remember that excitation (e.g. adrenaline) makes the postsynaptic neurone more likely to fire, whereas inhibition (e.g. GABA) makes it less likely. Visualising the process as a 'key in lock' mechanism can help recall the specificity of receptor sites.
记住兴奋性神经递质（如肾上腺素）使突触后神经元更容易放电，抑制性神经递质（如 GABA）则降低放电可能性。将这一过程想象为“钥匙插入锁孔”有助于记忆受体位点的特异性。
2. Biopsychology: Brain Localisation & Plasticity | 大脑功能定位与可塑性
The brain is not a single homogeneous mass; specific functions are localised. The motor cortex in the frontal lobe controls voluntary movement, the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe processes touch, and Broca's area (left frontal lobe) is crucial for speech production. Following trauma, the brain can reorganise itself through functional recovery – a process often aided by axonal sprouting.
大脑并非均质的整体；特定功能具有定位。额叶的运动皮层控制随意运动，顶叶的躯体感觉皮层处理触觉，布洛卡区（左额叶）对语言表达至关重要。创伤后，大脑能通过功能恢复进行重组——该过程常借助轴突萌发得以实现。
| Term | Memory Strategy |
|---|---|
| Broca's aphasia | 'Broca = broken speech.' Speech is slow and lacks fluency, but comprehension remains intact. |
| Wernicke's area | 'Wernicke = wordy nonsense.' Fluent speech but with meaningless content and poor comprehension. |
| Plasticity | The brain's ability to change throughout life. Think of it as 'plastic' being moulded by experience. |
Functional recovery after stroke shows that the healthy hemisphere can take over lost functions. Studies on London taxi drivers (Maguire et al.) demonstrate plasticity through an increase in hippocampal grey matter.
中风后的功能恢复表明，健康半球可以接管丧失的功能。对伦敦出租车司机的研究（Maguire 等人）通过海马灰质增加证明了大脑可塑性。
3. Psychopathology: Definitions of Abnormality | 异常的定义
AQA expects you to evaluate four definitions of abnormality: statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, and deviation from ideal mental health. Each has strengths and limitations. For example, statistical infrequency is objective but fails to distinguish desirable and undesirable rarities (like high IQ).
AQA 考试要求你评价四种异常定义：统计稀缺性、偏离社会规范、功能失效和偏离理想心理健康。每种定义都有优缺点。例如，统计稀缺性客观，但无法区分难得且可取的特质（如高智商）与难得且不可取的特质。
Failure to function adequately (Rosenhan & Seligman) includes features like unpredictability and observer discomfort. Jahoda's deviation from ideal mental health proposes six criteria, such as positive self-attitude and autonomy. Use the mnemonic 'SNAP' for statistical infrequency, 'NORMS' for deviation from social norms, 'FAILURE' for failure to function, and 'JAHODA' for ideal mental health.
功能失效（Rosenhan 和 Seligman）涵盖不可预测性和旁观者不适等特征。Jahoda 的偏离理想心理健康提出了六项标准，如积极自我态度和自主性。可用缩写 “SNAP” 记统计稀缺性，“NORMS” 记社会规范偏离，“FAILURE” 记功能失效，“JAHODA” 记理想心理健康。
4. Psychopathology: Phobias, Depression & OCD | 恐惧症、抑郁症与强迫症
For phobias, the two-process model (Mowrer) explains acquisition via classical conditioning and maintenance via operant conditioning. Systematic desensitisation uses counterconditioning and a fear hierarchy to treat phobias. For depression, Beck's negative triad and Ellis's ABC model are crucial cognitive explanations, while CBT is the key therapy.
对于恐惧症，二阶段模型（Mowrer）解释其通过经典条件作用获得、通过操作性条件作用维持。系统脱敏法运用反条件作用和恐惧层级来治疗恐惧症。抑郁症方面，贝克的负性认知三联和埃利斯的 ABC 模型是重要的认知解释，而 CBT 是核心疗法。
OCD is linked to the COMT and SERT genes and abnormal levels of dopamine and serotonin. The orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nucleus are implicated in the 'worry circuit'. Remember 'Serotonin Suggests SERT' and 'Dopamine Damps COMT' for the genetic markers.
强迫症与 COMT 基因和 SERT 基因以及多巴胺和血清素的异常水平有关。眶额皮层和尾状核牵涉于“担忧回路”中。记忆基因标记可用“Serotonin Suggests SERT”和“Dopamine Damps COMT”。
5. Approaches: Key Assumptions | 心理学流派核心假设
A comparative understanding of approaches is essential for the Year 13 exam. The biological approach assumes behaviour is determined by genetics, neurotransmitters, and brain structures. The behaviourist approach focuses on observable behaviour shaped by environmental stimuli. The cognitive approach uses models to explain internal mental processes, while the psychodynamic approach emphasises unconscious drives and childhood experiences.
对比理解各心理学流派对 A2 考试至关重要。生物学流派认为行为由遗传、神经递质和大脑结构决定。行为主义流派聚焦于受环境刺激塑造的可观察行为。认知流派利用模型解释内部心理过程，精神分析流派则强调无意识驱力与童年经历。
oaches. To memorise the core assumptions, create a grid linking each approach to its key terms: biological → genotype/phenotype, behaviourist → reinforcement, cognitive → schema, psychodynamic → id/ego/superego, humanistic → congruence.
人本主义心理学提出自由意志、自我实现和价值条件，与决定论流派形成鲜明对比。为记住核心假设，可制作网格将每个流派与关键术语链接：生物学→基因型/表型，行为主义→强化，认知→图式，精神分析→本我/自我/超我，人本主义→一致性。
6. Research Methods: Validity, Reliability & Design | 研究方法：效度、信度与实验设计
Internal validity refers to whether a study measures what it intends to measure; external validity concerns generalisability. Reliability means consistency – if you repeat the study, you should get similar results. Demand characteristics and investigator effects can threaten validity, so techniques like double-blind procedures are used.
内部效度指研究是否测量了其想要测量的内容；外部效度关乎可推广性。信度指一致性——如果重复研究，应得到相似结果。需求特征和研究者效应会威胁效度，因此采用双盲程序等技术。
| Design | Key Feature | Avoid confusion by |
|---|---|---|
| Independent groups | Different participants in each condition. | Thinking 'Independent = separate participants' |
| Repeated measures | Same participants do all conditions. | 'Repeated = same people again' |
| Matched pairs | Participants matched on a key variable, then split. | Like twin studies – similar starting points |
When tackling a methods question, always state 'this increases/decreases the internal/external validity' or 'this ensures high inter-rater reliability' with a clear justification. For ethical issues, use the mnemonic 'CARDIN' – Consent, Anonymity, Right to withdraw, Deception, Injury, and No harm.
解答研究方法类题目时，要明确指出“这提高/降低了内部/外部效度”或“这保证了高评分者间信度”，并给出清晰论证。伦理问题可用缩略词“CARDIN”——知情同意、匿名、退出权、欺骗、伤害与无损伤。
7. Issues & Debates: Nature vs Nurture and More | 争议与议题：先天与后天等
The AQA specification requires you to discuss nature versus nurture, free will versus determinism, holism versus reductionism, idiographic versus nomothetic, and gender/culture bias. The nature-nurture debate now emphasises an interactionist approach – epigenetics shows that environmental factors can switch genes on or off.
AQA 考纲要求讨论先天与后天、自由意志与决定论、整体论与还原论、个案研究与规律研究，以及性别/文化偏见。先天-后天之争如今强调交互论——表观遗传学表明环境因素可以开启或关闭基因。
Determinism has multiple forms: biological, environmental, psychic (Freud), and soft determinism (William James). To recall these, think 'BEPS'. Holism examines the 'whole person' (e.g. humanistic psychology), whereas reductionism breaks behaviour down into constituent parts (e.g. biological reductionism at the neuronal level).
决定论有多种形式：生物决定论、环境决定论、精神决定论（弗洛伊德）和软决定论（威廉·詹姆斯）。用“BEPS”来记忆。整体论考察“完整的人”（如人本主义心理学），而还原论将行为拆解为构成部分（如神经元水平的生物还原论）。
Alpha bias exaggerates differences between genders, beta bias minimises them. Use the example of male-centric research (androcentrism) to illustrate gender bias. For cultural bias, the term 'ethnocentrism' refers to judging other cultures by one's own standards; 'cultural relativism' reminds us that behaviour can only be understood within its cultural context.
阿尔法偏见夸大性别差异，贝塔偏见则最小化差异。用男性中心研究（androcentrism）的例子说明性别偏见。文化偏见方面，“民族中心主义”指用自己的文化标准评判其他文化；“文化相对主义”提醒我们行为只能在特定文化背景下理解。
8. Memory: Key Models and Explanations | 记忆：关键模型与解释
Although introduced in Year 1, memory models often appear in synoptic questions. The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) proposes sensory register, STM, and LTM as separate stores differing in duration, capacity, and coding. The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) replaces the unitary STM with the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
尽管记忆模型在 AS 阶段已引入，但常出现在综合性考题中。多存储模型（Atkinson 和 Shiffrin）提出感觉登记、短时记忆和长时记忆是彼此分离的存储库，在持续时间、容量和编码上各不相同。工作记忆模型（Baddeley 和 Hitch）用中央执行系统、语音回路、视空间画板和情景缓冲器取代了单一的短时记忆。
rning disrupts new) and retroactive interference (new disrupts old) can be remembered with 'PRO=forward' ailure (cue-dependent forgetting) is best illustrated by the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
遗忘的解释中，前摄干扰（旧知识干扰新知识）和倒摄干扰（新知识干扰旧知识）可用“PRO=前向”记忆，前摄干扰如从过去到现在的正向干扰。提取失败（依赖线索的遗忘）的最佳例证是舌尖现象。
9. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience Terms | 社会影响：从众与服从术语
Asch's research demonstrated normative social influence (conforming to be liked) and informational social influence (conforming to be right). Milgram's obedience studies highlighted the agentic state, where individuals shift responsibility to an authority figure. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment illustrated deindividuation and conformity to social roles.
阿希的研究证明了规范社会影响（为了被喜欢而从众）和信息社会影响（为了正确而从众）。米尔格拉姆的服从研究强调了施动状态，即个体将责任转移给权威人物。津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验则揭示了去个体化和对社会角色的顺从。
Key terms: Locus of control (Rotter) – internal individuals resist coercion; external individuals feel controlled by fate. Minority influence (Moscovici) relies on consistency, commitment, and flexibility. The snowball effect explains how minority views gradually gain momentum. Think 'Moscovici's Minorities Make Massive Movements' for consistency leading to conversion.
关键术语：控制点（Rotter）——内控者抵抗强制；外控者感觉受命运控制。少数人影响（Moscovici）依赖于一致性、投入和灵活性。雪球效应解释了少数人的观点如何逐渐获得力量。用“Moscovici's Minorities Make Massive Movements”记住一致性导致转变。
10. Attachment: Key Concepts | 依恋：关键概念
Bowlby's monotropic theory states that infants have an innate need to attach to one primary caregiver, forming an internal working model. Ainsworth's Strange Situation identified three attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C). Secure attachments lead to healthier social and emotional development.
鲍尔比的单依恋理论指出，婴儿有与一个主要照料者建立依恋的先天需求，形成内部工作模型。安斯沃思的陌生情境法识别出三种依恋类型：安全型（B 型）、不安全-回避型（A 型）和不安全-反抗型（C 型）。安全依恋促成更健康的社交与情绪发展。
Romanian orphan studies (Rutter) highlight the effects of institutionalisation, including disinhibited attachment and intellectual impairment. The concept of a 'sensitive period' (first 2–3 years) is central. Remember: 'Bowlby's Beautiful Blueprint says Baby Bonds Best Before age 3.'
罗马尼亚孤儿院研究（Rutter）凸显了机构化效应，包括去抑制型依恋和智力损伤。“敏感期”概念（出生后 2–3 年）是核心。记住：“Bowlby's Beautiful Blueprint says Baby Bonds Best Before age 3.”
11. Schizophrenia: Classification & Explanations | 精神分裂症：分类与解释
Schizophrenia is classified in the DSM-5 (requires two or more positive symptoms) and ICD-11. Positive symptoms include hallucinations and delusions; negative symptoms involve avolition and speech poverty. Reliability in diagnosis can be affected by cultural bias and symptom overlap with conditions like bipolar disorder.
精神分裂症在 DSM-5（需两个或多个阳性症状）和 ICD-11 中均有分类。阳性症状包括幻觉和妄想；阴性症状则涉及意志减退和言语贫乏。诊断的信度可能受文化偏见和与双相情感障碍等疾病的症状重叠影响。
Biological explanations for schizophrenia centre on the dopamine hypothesis – hyperdopaminergia in the subcortex causes positive symptoms, while hypodopaminergia in the prefrontal cortex may explain negative symptoms. Neural correlates include enlarged ventricles and reduced grey matter. Psychological explanations include family dysfunction (double-bind theory, expressed emotion) and the cognitive explanation of dysfunctional thought processing.
精神分裂症的生物学解释围绕多巴胺假说——皮层下多巴胺功能亢进导致阳性症状，而前额叶皮层多巴胺功能减退可能解释阴性症状。神经相关物包括脑室扩大和灰质减少。心理学解释包括家庭功能失调（双重束缚理论、情感表达）和认知功能障碍思维加工解释。
Drug therapy uses typical and atypical antipsychotics. Typical antipsychotics (e.g. chlorpromazine) block D2 receptors; atypical antipsychotics (e.g. clozapine) also act on serotonin and glutamate. Use 'Cloze the door on excess dopamine' to link clozapine to a broader mechanism.
药物治疗使用典型和非典型抗精神病药。典型药物（如氯丙嗪）阻断 D2 受体；非典型药物（如氯氮平）还作用于血清素和谷氨酸。用“Cloze the door on excess dopamine”将氯氮平与更广泛的机制联系起来。
12. Cognitive Development: Piaget & Vygotsky | 认知发展：皮亚杰与维果茨基
Piaget's stage theory emphasises qualitative changes in thinking: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Key concepts include object permanence, conservation, egocentrism, and class inclusion. Vygotsky stressed the role of culture and social interaction, introducing the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding.
皮亚杰的阶段理论强调思维发生质变：感知运动、前运算、具体运算和形式运算阶段。关键概念包括客体永久性、守恒、自我中心和类包含。维果茨基强调文化和社会互动的作用，提出了最近发展区（ZPD）和支架概念。
To remember Piaget's stages and ages, use: ' People (pre-operational 2-7) Can (concrete operational 7-11) Fly (formal operational 11+)'. For Vygotsky, 'ZPD = what I can do with help minus what I can do alone'. Scaffolding is the temporary support provided by a More Knowledgeable Other.
记忆皮亚杰的阶段和年龄可用：“Some (感知运动 0-2) People (前运算 2-7) Can (具体运算 7-11) Fly (形式运算 11+)”。对于维果茨基，“ZPD = 在帮助下能做的减去独立能做的”。支架是更有知识的他人提供的临时支持。
Evaluations often highlight that Piaget underestimated young children's abilities (e.g. using simpler tasks) and that Vygotsky's ideas have strong educational applications, such as collaborative learning. Both theories are essential for understanding cognitive change.
评价常指出皮亚杰低估了幼儿的能力（如使用更简单的任务），而维果茨基的思想具有较强的教育应用，如合作学习。两个理论对于理解认知变化都至关重要。
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