AQA A-Level Accounting Formula and Theorem Quick Reference | AQA A-Level 会计公式定理速查手册

📚 AQA A-Level Accounting Formula and Theorem Quick Reference | AQA A-Level 会计公式定理速查手册

Welcome to this comprehensive quick-reference guide covering the essential formulas, theorems, and calculation techniques for the Year 13 AQA Accounting specification. Mastering these quantitative tools is critical for analysing financial performance, making internal decisions, and evaluating investment opportunities. Each section below presents key equations in a clear, bilingual format so that you can revise efficiently and confidently approach both calculation and interpretation questions.

欢迎使用这份全面的速查手册，涵盖 Year 13 AQA 会计课程的核心公式、定理和计算方法。掌握这些量化工具对于分析财务表现、做出内部决策以及评估投资机会至关重要。以下各节以清晰的中英双语形式呈现关键公式，帮助你高效复习，从容应对计算与解释类题目。

1. Profitability Ratios | 盈利能力比率

Profitability ratios measure a business's ability to generate earnings relative to its revenue, assets, or equity. They are fundamental to assessing financial health and comparing companies across periods or within an industry.

盈利能力比率衡量企业相对于收入、资产或权益产生利润的能力，是评估财务健康状况以及在不同期间或同行业内进行比较的基础工具。

Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100

毛利率 = (毛利 ÷ 营业收入) × 100

This ratio shows the percentage of sales revenue remaining after deducting the cost of sales. A higher margin suggests better control over direct production or purchasing costs.

该比率显示扣除销售成本后剩余销售收入所占的百分比。较高的毛利率表明企业对直接生产或采购成本有较好的控制。

Operating Profit Margin = (Operating Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100

营业利润率 = (营业利润 ÷ 营业收入) × 100

Operating profit margin indicates how much profit a company makes from its core operations before interest and tax, reflecting both production and administrative efficiency.

营业利润率反映企业在支付利息和税款之前从核心业务中赚取利润的能力，体现了生产与行政管理的综合效率。

Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) = (Operating Profit ÷ Capital Employed) × 100
Employed = Total Equity + Non-current Liabilities (or Total Assets − Current Liabilities)

已用资本回报率 = (营业利润 ÷ 已用资本) × 100
其中，已用资本 = 总权益 + 非流动负债（或总资产 − 流动负债）

ROCE evaluates the return generated from all long-term funds invested in the business. It is a key measure of overall profitability and efficiency of capital usage.

ROCE 评估企业利用所有长期投入资本所获得的回报，是衡量整体盈利能力和资本使用效率的关键指标。

Return on Equity (ROE) = (Profit for the Year attributable to Owners ÷ Total Equity) × 100

净资产收益率 = (归属于母公司股东的年度利润 ÷ 总权益) × 100

ROE focuses on the return earned on shareholders' funds only, making it especially useful for investors assessing the performance of a company’s management from an equity holder's perspective.

ROE 仅关注股东资金所获得的回报，对于投资者从股东角度评估管理层的业绩表现尤为有用。

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2. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率

Liquidity ratios assess a firm’s ability to meet its short-term obligations as they fall due. These ratios are critical for creditors and management to monitor the risk of cash flow problems.

流动性比率评估企业偿还到期短期债务的能力，对债权人和管理层监控现金流风险至关重要。

Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities

流动比率 = 流动资产 ÷ 流动负债

Often expressed as X:1, the current ratio provides a broad indication of whether the business has enough current assets to cover its current liabilities. A ratio significantly above 1 is generally viewed as safe, though excessively high figures may indicate inefficient use of resources.

流动比率通常以 X:1 表示，广泛说明企业是否有足够的流动资产覆盖流动负债。该比率显著大于 1 一般被视为安全，但过高可能表明资源利用效率低下。

Acid Test (Quick) Ratio = (Current Assets − Inventories) ÷ Current Liabilities

酸性测试（速动）比率 = (流动资产 − 存货) ÷ 流动负债

By excluding inventories, which are often the least liquid current asset, the quick ratio offers a stricter test of immediate solvency. A result of 1:1 or above is typically considered healthy for most businesses.

速动比率剔除了流动性往往最差的存货，从而更严格地测试即时偿付能力。对多数企业而言，结果达到 1:1 或以上通常被视为稳健。

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3. Efficiency and Activity Ratios | 效率与运营比率

Efficiency ratios indicate how well a business manages its working capital components and utilises its assets to generate sales. They are essential for evaluating operational effectiveness.

效率比率表明企业管理营运资金各部分以及利用资产创造销售的效率，是评估经营有效性的重要工具。

Inventory Turnover (Days) = (Average Inventory ÷ Cost of Sales) × 365

存货周转天数 = (平均存货 ÷ 销售成本) × 365

This ratio measures the average number of days goods are held before being sold. A shorter period generally implies stronger sales or more efficient stock management, but extremely low holdings can risk stockouts.

该比率衡量商品售出前的平均持有天数。较短的周期通常意味着销售强劲或库存管理高效，但持有量过低可能带来缺货风险。

Trade Receivables Collection Period = (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365

应收账款周转天数 = (应收账款 ÷ 赊销收入) × 365

It shows the average time taken by credit customers to pay. A period close to the company’s credit terms is ideal; a significantly longer period may signal credit control issues.

该比率显示赊销客户的平均付款时间。接近企业信用期的理想天数最佳；显著偏长可能意味着信用控制存在问题。

Trade Payables Payment Period = (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365

应付账款周转天数 = (应付账款 ÷ 赊购额) × 365

This calculates how long the business takes, on average, to settle its trade payables. Delaying payments improves cash flow but can damage supplier relationships if taken too far.

该计算反映企业平均需要多少天结清应付账款。延迟付款能改善现金流，但过度拖延可能损害与供应商的关系。

Asset Turnover = Revenue ÷ Capital Employed (or Total Assets)

资产周转率 = 营业收入 ÷ 已用资本（或总资产）

Asset turnover gauges the revenue generated per unit of capital employed. A higher ratio indicates more efficient use of the company’s asset base and complements ROCE in DuPont-style analysis.

资产周转率衡量每单位已用资本创造的收入。比率越高，说明企业对资产基础的利用效率越高，在杜邦分析中与 ROCE 相辅相成。

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4. Gearing and Investor Ratios | 杠杆与投资者比率

Gearing assesses the long-term financial structure of a business, while investor ratios help shareholders evaluate the returns and market valuation of their investment.

杠杆比率评估企业的长期财务结构，而投资者比率则帮助股东评价其投资的回报与市场估值。

Gearing Ratio = (Non-current Liabilities ÷ (Total Equity + Non-current Liabilities)) × 100
or = (Debt ÷ (Debt + Equity)) × 100

杠杆（负债比率） = (非流动负债 ÷ (总权益 + 非流动负债)) × 100
或 = (借款 ÷ (借款 + 权益)) × 100

A highly geared company is more vulnerable to interest rate rises and profit downturns because a larger proportion of its financing comes from debt. The acceptable level varies by industry.

高杠杆的公司更容易受到利率上升和利润下滑的冲击，因为其融资中债务占比较高。可接受的水平因行业而异。

Earnings per Share (EPS) o Ordinary Shareholders − Preference Dividends) ÷ Weighted Average Number of Ordinary Shares

每股收益 = (归属于普通股股东的年度利润 − 优先股股利) ÷ 加权平均普通股股数

EPS shows the profit earned per ordinary share and is a key driver of share price. AQA examines basic EPS using the year-end number of shares where the weighted average is not complex.

EPS 表示每股普通股所赚取的利润，是股价的关键驱动因素。AQA 考试通常采用年末股数计算基本每股收益，无需加权平均过于复杂。

Price/Earnings (P/E) Ratio = Market Price per Share ÷ Earnings per Share

市盈率 = 每股市价 ÷ 每股收益

The P/E ratio indicates how much investors are willing to pay for each unit of earnings. A high P/E reflects high growth expectations or a potentially overvalued stock.

市盈率显示投资者为每一单位收益愿意支付的价格。较高的市盈率反映较高的增长预期，或股票可能被高估。

Dividend Yield = (Dividend per Share ÷ Market Price per Share) × 100

股息率 = (每股股息 ÷ 每股市价) × 100

Dividend yield measures the cash return on a share relative to its market price. Income-oriented investors prefer higher yields, though a very high yield may be unsustainable.

股息率衡量相对于股价的现金回报。注重收益的投资者偏好较高的股息率，但过高的股息率可能难以持续。

Dividend Cover = Earnings per Share ÷ Dividend per Share

股息保障倍数 = 每股收益 ÷ 每股股息

This ratio assesses how many times the profit could cover the dividend payment. A cover of 2 times or more is often regarded as prudent, leaving room for reinvestment.

该比率评估利润能够覆盖股息支付的倍数。通常认为 2 倍或以上的保障倍数较为稳健，可为再投资留出空间。

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5. Absorption and Marginal Costing | 完全成本法与边际成本法

The two main costing methods produce different profit figures due to how fixed production overheads are treated. Understanding the difference is vital for inventory valuation and decision-making.

两种主要成本核算方法因固定生产间接费用的处理不同而产生差异化的利润数据。理解这一差异对于存货估价和决策至关重要。

Overhead Absorption Rate (OAR) d Production Overheads ÷ Budgeted Activity Level (e.g. machine hours, labour hours, units)

制造费用吸收率 = 预算制造费用 ÷ 预算作业量（例如机器小时、人工小时、产量）

In absorption costing, the OAR is used to allocate overheads to products. Under- or over-absorption occurs when actual overheads or activity differ from budget.

在完全成本法下，制造费用吸收率用于将间接费用分配至产品。当实际间接费用或作业量与预算不符时，就会出现少吸收或多吸收。

Contribution per Unit = Selling Price per Unit − Variable Cost per Unit

单位贡献毛益 = 单位售价 − 单位变动成本

Marginal costing relies on contribution to cover fixed costs and generate profit. It is the foundation of breakeven analysis and many short-term decisions.

边际成本法依赖贡献毛益来覆盖固定成本并创造利润，是盈亏平衡分析和许多短期决策的基础。

Profit Difference = (Change in Inventory Units × Fixed Production Overhead per Unit)

利润差异 = (存货数量变动 × 单位固定制造费用)

If closing inventory increases, absorption costing will report higher profit than marginal costing because some fixed overheads are carried forward in the inventory valuation.

若期末存货增加，完全成本法报告的利润将高于边际成本法，因为部分固定制造费用被结转至存货价值中。

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6. Standard Costing Variances | 标准成本差异分析

Standard costing compares actual performance against predetermined standards to identify areas where costs or revenues deviate from expectations. Variance analysis is central to budgetary control.

标准成本法将实际绩效与预定标准进行比较，以识别成本或收入偏离预期的领域。差异分析是预算控制的核心。

Direct Material Price Variance = (Standard Price − Actual Price) × Actual Quantity Purchased

直接材料价格差异 = (标准价格 − 实际价格) × 实际采购量

A favourable variance occurs when the actual price is lower than the standard, assuming material quality is consistent.

若质量恒定，实际价格低于标准价格时会产生有利差异。

Direct Material Usage Variance = (Standard Quantity for Actual Output − Actual Quantity Used) × Standard Price

直接材料用量差异 = (实际产量应耗标准用量 − 实际使用量) × 标准价格

This measures efficiency in the use of materials. Waste or inferior quality materials often cause adverse usage variances.

该差异衡量材料使用的效率。损耗或低质量材料常导致不利的用量差异。

Direct Labour Rate Variance = (Standard Rate per Hour − Actual Rate per Hour) × Actual Hours Worked

直接人工工资率差异 = (标准小时工资率 − 实际小时工资率) × 实际工时

Caused by paying higher or lower wage rates than planned, for example employing temporary staff at a premium.

由支付高于或低于计划的工资率造成，例如以溢价雇佣临时工。

Direct Labour Efficiency Variance = (Standard Hours for Actual Output − Actual Hours Worked) × Standard Rate per Hour

直接人工效率差异 = (实际产量应耗标准工时 − 实际工时) × 标准小时工资率

This variance reflects productivity. Training, machine breakdowns, or demotivated workers may lead to adverse efficiency variances.

该差异反映生产率。培训、设备故障或员工积极性不足可能导致不利的效率差异。

Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance = (Standard Variable Overhead Rate × Actual Hours) − Actual Variable Overhead Cost

变动制造费用支出差异 = (标准变动制造费用率 × 实际工时) − 实际变动制造费用

Similar to the labour rate variance but applied to variable overheads such as power or indirect materials.

与人工工资率差异类似，但适用于变动制造费用，如电费或间接材料。

Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance tandard Hours for Actual Output − Actual Hours) × Standard Variable Overhead Rate per Hour

变动制造费用效率差异 = (实际产量应耗标准工时 − 实际工时) × 标准小时变动制造费用率

It links directly to labour efficiency because variable overheads often vary with labour hours worked.

该差异与人工效率直接关联，因为变动制造费用通常随工时变化。

Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Fixed Overheads − Actual Fixed Overheads

固定制造费用支出差异 = 预算固定制造费用 − 实际固定制造费用

This is a simple comparison of spending against budget. It is not affected by the level of activity in the short term.

这是对支出与预算的简单比较，短期不受作业水平影响。

Fixed Overhead Volume Variance = (Actual Output − Budgeted Output) × Standard Fixed Overhead Rate per Unit

固定制造费用产量差异 = (实际产量 − 预算产量) × 每单位标准固定制造费用率

Volume variance arises solely because the actual production level differs from the budgeted level. It can be further split into capacity and efficiency sub-variances in detailed AQA analysis.

产量差异纯粹因实际生产水平与预算水平不同而产生。在更详细的 AQA 分析中，它可进一步分解为生产能力差异和效率差异。

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7. Budgeting Concepts and Flexed Budgets | 预算概念与弹性预算

Effective budgeting underpins planning, control, and performance evaluation. AQA expects you to distinguish between fixed budgets and flexed budgets and to understand how flexing aids meaningful variance analysis.

有效的预算编制是计划、控制和业绩评价的基础。AQA 要求你区分固定预算与弹性预算，并理解弹性预算如何帮助进行有意义的差异分析。

Flexed Budget Cost Allowance = Budgeted Fixed Cost + (Variable Cost per Unit × Actual Volume)

弹性预算成本限额 = 预算固定成本 + (单位变动成本 × 实际业务量)

A flexed budget adjusts the original budget to reflect actual activity levels, enabling a like-for-like comparison of costs and revenues.

弹性预算将原预算按实际业务量调整，使成本与收入能够在相同基础上进行比较。

Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) approach requires each cost item to be justified from scratch rather than simply adjusting last year’s figures. It promotes efficiency but can be time-consuming.

零基预算方法要求从零开始论证每项开支，而非简单调整去年数据。它有利于提升效率，但较为耗时。

In variance reporting, the total variance is decomposed into volume variance and expenditure (or price/efficiency) variance only after the budget has been flexed. The flexed budget is the benchmark.

在差异报告中，只有在预算弹化之后，总差异才能分解为业务量差异和支出（或价格/效率）差异。弹性预算是比较的基准。

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8. Capital Investment Appraisal | 资本投资评估

Investment appraisal techniques help businesses decide whether long-term projects are financially worthwhile. AQA requires you to calculate and interpret several methods, aware of their respective strengths and limitations.

投资评估技术帮助企业在财务上判断长期项目是否值得进行。AQA 要求你计算并解释几种方法，并了解它们各自的优缺点。

Payback Period r before full recovery + (Unrecovered Amount at start of year ÷ Cash Flow during the year)

投资回收期 = 完全回收前一年 + (年初未回收金额 ÷ 当年现金流量)

Payback calculates how long it takes to recover the initial investment from net cash flows. Shorter payback is preferred due to lower risk and faster return of funds.

投资回收期计算从净现金流量中回收初始投资所需的时间。较短的回收期因风险较低且资金回收较快而更受青睐。

Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) = (Average Annual Accounting Profit ÷ Average Investment) × 100
where Average Investment = (Initial Cost + Residual Value) ÷ 2 (simplified)

会计报酬率 = (平均年度会计利润 ÷ 平均投资额) × 100
其中，平均投资额（简化）= (初始成本 + 残值) ÷ 2

ARR uses accounting profits rather than cash flows. It is easy to calculate and understand but ignores the time value of money and the timing of profits.

ARR 使用的是会计利润而非现金流。该方法易于计算和理解，但忽略了货币时间价值和利润实现的时点。

Net Present Value (NPV) = Σ [Cash Flow in period t ÷ (1 + r)^t] − Initial Investment
where r = discount rate (cost of capital), t = time period

净现值 = Σ [第 t 期现金流量 ÷ (1 + r) 的 t 次方] − 初始投资
其中 r = 折现率（资本成本），t = 时间期数

NPV discounts all future cash flows to their present value using the company’s cost of capital. A positive NPV indicates the project should be accepted because it adds value to the business.

NPV 使用公司的资本成本将所有未来现金流折现至其现值。正的净现值说明项目应被接受，因为它会为企业增加价值。

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) t L ÷ (NPV at L − NPV at H)] × (H − L), where L and H are lower and higher discount rates.

内部收益率是使 NPV 等于零的折现率。可通过插值法近似求得：IRR ≈ L + [L 点 NPV ÷ (L 点 NPV − H 点 NPV)] × (H − L)，其中 L 和 H 分别为较低和较高的折现率。

A project is acceptable if IRR exceeds the cost of capital. IRR is widely used alongside NPV but can give misleading signals when comparing mutually exclusive projects of different sizes.

当 IRR 超过资本成本时，项目可行。IRR 常与 NPV 一并使用，但在比较不同规模的互斥项目时可能产生误导信号。

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9. Break-Even and Contribution Analysis | 盈亏平衡与贡献分析

Break-even analysis appears in decision-making contexts, particularly when evaluating short-term special contracts, make-or-buy decisions, and the viability of new products.

盈亏平衡分析常用于决策情境，尤其是在评估短期特殊合同、自制或外购决策以及新产品可行性时。

Break-Even Point (Units) = Total Fixed Costs ÷ Contribution per Unit

盈亏平衡点（数量） = 固定成本总额 ÷ 单位贡献毛益

At break-even, total contribution exactly covers fixed costs, yielding neither profit nor loss. It is the minimum sales volume required to avoid a loss.

在盈亏平衡点，总贡献毛益刚好覆盖固定成本，企业既不盈利也不亏损。这是避免亏损所需的最低销售量。

Break-Even Point (Revenue) = Total Fixed Costs ÷ (Contribution ÷ Sales Ratio) or = Break-Even Units × Selling Price

盈亏平衡点（收入） = 固定成本总额 ÷ (贡献毛益率) 或 = 盈亏平衡量 × 售价

The contribution-to-sales (C/S) ratio expresses contribution as a percentage of sales revenue and is useful when multiple products are sold.

贡献毛益率（C/S 比率）将贡献毛益表示成销售收入的百分比，在多产品销售时尤为有用。

Margin of Safety = Actual (or Budgeted) Sales Units − Break-Even Sales Units
Or as a percentage: (Margin of Safety in units ÷ Actual Sales Units) × 100

安全边际 = 实际（或预算）销售量 − 盈亏平衡销售量
或以百分比表示：(安全边际量 ÷ 实际销售量) × 100

A high margin of safety implies that sales can fall substantially before the business incurs a loss, indicating lower risk.

较高的安全边际意味着销售额在大幅下滑后企业才会亏损，表明风险较低。

Target Profit in Units = (Total Fixed Costs + Target Profit) ÷ Contribution per Unit

实现目标利润所需销量 = (固定成本总额 + 目标利润) ÷ 单位贡献毛益

This formula extends break-even logic to determine the volume needed to achieve a desired profit level, widely used for short-term planning.

该公式拓展了盈亏平衡逻辑，用于计算实现预期利润所需的销售数量，广泛应用于短期规划。

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10. Partnership and Company Accounting Formulas | 合伙与公司会计公式

Specific formulas apply when calculating appropriation of profits, goodwill adjustments, and changes in share capital structure. These are frequently tested in AQA Year 13 assessments.

在计算利润分配、商誉调整以及股本结构变动时，需要运用特定公式。这些内容是 AQA Year 13 考试的常见考点。

Interest on Partners’ Capital nce × Agreed Interest Rate × (Number of Months ÷ 12) when capital changes during the year.

合伙人资本利息 = 资本余额 × 约定利率 × (月份数 ÷ 12)，当年内资本变动时需按时间加权。

Partnership agreements often specify interest on capital to reward partners for the funds they have invested. Interest on drawings, on the other hand, penalises early withdrawal of profits.

合伙协议通常规定资本利息，以回报合伙人投入的资金。另一方面，提取利息是对提前提取利润的一种惩罚。

Goodwill Valuation – Simple Average Profit Method eed Number of Years’ Purchase. Profit may be adjusted for abnormal items before averaging.

商誉估值 – 简单平均利润法 = 平均年度利润 × 约定的购买年数。计算平均利润前可能需要调整非经常性项目。

When a new partner is admitted or an existing partner retires, goodwill is revalued and adjustments are made through partners’ capital accounts to ensure equity.

当新合伙人加入或现有合伙人退出时，商誉需要重新估值，并通过合伙人资本账户进行调整以确保公平。

Rights Issue and Bonus Issue
Bonus shares are issued to existing shareholders in proportion to their holdings using reserves (e.g., share premium or retained earnings). No cash changes hands.
A rights issue requires the calculation of the theoretical ex-rights price: (Market value of existing shares + Proceeds from new issue) ÷ Total number of shares after the rights issue.

配股与红股发行
红股按现有股东的持股比例，动用准备金（如股本溢价或留存收益）无偿发行，不涉及现金。
配股需要计算理论除权价格：(现有股份市价总值 + 新股发行收入) ÷ 配股后总股数。

Understanding these formulas ensures accurate ledger entries and helps stakeholders evaluate the impact on earnings per share and market price.

掌握这些公式能确保分类账记录的准确性，并帮助利益相关者评估其对每股收益和市场价格的影响。

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Published by TutorHao | Accounting Revision Series | aleveler.com

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